ASHRAE Handbook Refrigeration 10:2010 Edition
$102.38
2010 ASHRAE Handbook Refrigeration (I-P)
| Published By | Publication Date | Number of Pages |
| ASHRAE | 2010 | 701 |
PDF Catalog
| PDF Pages | PDF Title |
|---|---|
| 1 | I-P_R10_Ch01 I-P_R10_Ch01 Piping Basic Principles Piping Basic Principles Refrigerant Flow Refrigerant Flow Refrigerant Line Velocities Refrigerant Line Velocities Table 1 Recommended Gas Line Velocities Table 1 Recommended Gas Line Velocities Refrigerant Flow Rates Refrigerant Flow Rates Refrigerant Line Sizing Refrigerant Line Sizing |
| 2 | Fig. 1 Flow Rate per Ton of Refrigeration for Refrigerant 22 Fig. 1 Flow Rate per Ton of Refrigeration for Refrigerant 22 Fig. 1 Flow Rate per Ton of Refrigeration for Refrigerant 22 Fig. 1 Flow Rate per Ton of Refrigeration for Refrigerant 22 Fig. 2 Flow Rate per Ton of Refrigeration for Refrigerant 134a Fig. 2 Flow Rate per Ton of Refrigeration for Refrigerant 134a Fig. 2 Flow Rate per Ton of Refrigeration for Refrigerant 134a Fig. 2 Flow Rate per Ton of Refrigeration for Refrigerant 134a Pressure Drop Considerations Pressure Drop Considerations Table 2 Approximate Effect of Gas Line Pressure Drops on R-22 Compressor Capacity and Powera Table 2 Approximate Effect of Gas Line Pressure Drops on R-22 Compressor Capacity and Powera |
| 3 | Table 3 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 22 (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 3 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 22 (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 4 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 22 (Intermediate- or Low-Stage Duty) Table 4 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 22 (Intermediate- or Low-Stage Duty) |
| 4 | Table 5 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 134a (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 5 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 134a (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 5 | Location and Arrangement of Piping Location and Arrangement of Piping Protection Against Damage to Piping Protection Against Damage to Piping Piping Insulation Piping Insulation Vibration and Noise in Piping Vibration and Noise in Piping |
| 6 | Table 6 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 404A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 6 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 404A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 7 | Table 7 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 507A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 7 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 507A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 8 | Table 8 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 410A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 8 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 410A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 9 | Table 9 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 407C (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 9 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 407C (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 10 | Refrigerant Line Capacity Tables Refrigerant Line Capacity Tables Equivalent Lengths of Valves and Fittings Equivalent Lengths of Valves and Fittings Oil Management in Refrigerant Lines Oil Management in Refrigerant Lines |
| 11 | Table 10 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 22 (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 10 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 22 (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 11 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 134a (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 11 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 134a (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 12 | Table 12 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 404A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 12 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 404A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 13 | Table 13 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 507A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 13 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 507A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 14 | Table 14 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 410A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 14 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 410A (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 15 | Table 15 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 407C (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 15 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Refrigerant 407C (Single- or High-Stage Applications) |
| 16 | Table 16 Fitting Losses in Equivalent Feet of Pipe Table 16 Fitting Losses in Equivalent Feet of Pipe Table 17 Special Fitting Losses in Equivalent Feet of Pipe Table 17 Special Fitting Losses in Equivalent Feet of Pipe |
| 17 | Table 18 Valve Losses in Equivalent Feet of Pipe Table 18 Valve Losses in Equivalent Feet of Pipe Fig. 3 Double-Suction Riser Construction Fig. 3 Double-Suction Riser Construction Fig. 3 Double-Suction Riser Construction Fig. 3 Double-Suction Riser Construction |
| 18 | Table 19 Minimum Refrigeration Capacity in Tons for Oil Entrainment up Hot-Gas Risers (Type L Copper Tubing) Table 19 Minimum Refrigeration Capacity in Tons for Oil Entrainment up Hot-Gas Risers (Type L Copper Tubing) |
| 19 | Fig. 4 Suction Line Piping at Evaporator Coils Fig. 4 Suction Line Piping at Evaporator Coils Fig. 4 Suction Line Piping at Evaporator Coils Fig. 4 Suction Line Piping at Evaporator Coils Fig. 5 Typical Piping from Evaporators Located above and below Common Suction Line Fig. 5 Typical Piping from Evaporators Located above and below Common Suction Line Fig. 5 Typical Piping from Evaporators Located above and below Common Suction Line Fig. 5 Typical Piping from Evaporators Located above and below Common Suction Line Discharge (Hot-Gas) Lines Discharge (Hot-Gas) Lines Fig. 6 Double Hot-Gas Riser Fig. 6 Double Hot-Gas Riser Fig. 6 Double Hot-Gas Riser Fig. 6 Double Hot-Gas Riser |
| 20 | Table 20 Minimum Refrigeration Capacity in Tons for Oil Entrainment up Suction Risers (Type L Copper Tubing) Table 20 Minimum Refrigeration Capacity in Tons for Oil Entrainment up Suction Risers (Type L Copper Tubing) Fig. 7 Hot-Gas Loop Fig. 7 Hot-Gas Loop Fig. 7 Hot-Gas Loop Fig. 7 Hot-Gas Loop |
| 21 | Defrost Gas Supply Lines Defrost Gas Supply Lines Receivers Receivers Fig. 8 Shell-and-Tube Condenser to Receiver Piping (Through-Type Receiver) Fig. 8 Shell-and-Tube Condenser to Receiver Piping (Through-Type Receiver) Fig. 8 Shell-and-Tube Condenser to Receiver Piping (Through-Type Receiver) Fig. 8 Shell-and-Tube Condenser to Receiver Piping (Through-Type Receiver) Fig. 9 Shell-and-Tube Condenser to Receiver Piping (Surge-Type Receiver) Fig. 9 Shell-and-Tube Condenser to Receiver Piping (Surge-Type Receiver) Fig. 9 Shell-and-Tube Condenser to Receiver Piping (Surge-Type Receiver) Fig. 9 Shell-and-Tube Condenser to Receiver Piping (Surge-Type Receiver) |
| 22 | Table 21 Refrigerant Flow Capacity Data For Defrost Lines Table 21 Refrigerant Flow Capacity Data For Defrost Lines |
| 23 | Fig. 10 Parallel Condensers with Through-Type Receiver Fig. 10 Parallel Condensers with Through-Type Receiver Fig. 10 Parallel Condensers with Through-Type Receiver Fig. 10 Parallel Condensers with Through-Type Receiver Fig. 11 Parallel Condensers with Surge-Type Receiver Fig. 11 Parallel Condensers with Surge-Type Receiver Fig. 11 Parallel Condensers with Surge-Type Receiver Fig. 11 Parallel Condensers with Surge-Type Receiver Fig. 12 Single-Circuit Evaporative Condenser with Receiver and Liquid Subcooling Coil Fig. 12 Single-Circuit Evaporative Condenser with Receiver and Liquid Subcooling Coil Fig. 12 Single-Circuit Evaporative Condenser with Receiver and Liquid Subcooling Coil Fig. 12 Single-Circuit Evaporative Condenser with Receiver and Liquid Subcooling Coil Air-Cooled Condensers Air-Cooled Condensers |
| 24 | Fig. 13 Multiple Evaporative Condensers with Equalization to Condenser Inlets Fig. 13 Multiple Evaporative Condensers with Equalization to Condenser Inlets Fig. 13 Multiple Evaporative Condensers with Equalization to Condenser Inlets Fig. 13 Multiple Evaporative Condensers with Equalization to Condenser Inlets Fig. 14 Multiple Air-Cooled Condensers Fig. 14 Multiple Air-Cooled Condensers Fig. 14 Multiple Air-Cooled Condensers Fig. 14 Multiple Air-Cooled Condensers Piping at Multiple Compressors Piping at Multiple Compressors Suction Piping Suction Piping |
| 25 | Fig. 15 Suction and Hot-Gas Headers for Multiple Compressors Fig. 15 Suction and Hot-Gas Headers for Multiple Compressors Fig. 15 Suction and Hot-Gas Headers for Multiple Compressors Fig. 15 Suction and Hot-Gas Headers for Multiple Compressors Fig. 16 Parallel Compressors with Gravity Oil Flow Fig. 16 Parallel Compressors with Gravity Oil Flow Fig. 16 Parallel Compressors with Gravity Oil Flow Fig. 16 Parallel Compressors with Gravity Oil Flow Discharge Piping Discharge Piping Interconnection of Crankcases Interconnection of Crankcases Piping at Various System Components Piping at Various System Components Flooded Fluid Coolers Flooded Fluid Coolers |
| 26 | Fig. 17 Interconnecting Piping for Multiple Condensing Units Fig. 17 Interconnecting Piping for Multiple Condensing Units Fig. 17 Interconnecting Piping for Multiple Condensing Units Fig. 17 Interconnecting Piping for Multiple Condensing Units Fig. 18 Typical Piping at Flooded Fluid Cooler Fig. 18 Typical Piping at Flooded Fluid Cooler Fig. 18 Typical Piping at Flooded Fluid Cooler Fig. 18 Typical Piping at Flooded Fluid Cooler Fig. 19 Two-Circuit Direct-Expansion Cooler Connections (for Single-Compressor System) Fig. 19 Two-Circuit Direct-Expansion Cooler Connections (for Single-Compressor System) Fig. 19 Two-Circuit Direct-Expansion Cooler Connections (for Single-Compressor System) Fig. 19 Two-Circuit Direct-Expansion Cooler Connections (for Single-Compressor System) Refrigerant Feed Devices Refrigerant Feed Devices Direct-Expansion Fluid Chillers Direct-Expansion Fluid Chillers |
| 27 | Fig. 20 Typical Refrigerant Piping in Liquid Chilling Package with Two Completely Separate Circuits Fig. 20 Typical Refrigerant Piping in Liquid Chilling Package with Two Completely Separate Circuits Fig. 20 Typical Refrigerant Piping in Liquid Chilling Package with Two Completely Separate Circuits Fig. 20 Typical Refrigerant Piping in Liquid Chilling Package with Two Completely Separate Circuits Fig. 21 Direct-Expansion Cooler with Pilot-Operated Control Valve Fig. 21 Direct-Expansion Cooler with Pilot-Operated Control Valve Fig. 21 Direct-Expansion Cooler with Pilot-Operated Control Valve Fig. 21 Direct-Expansion Cooler with Pilot-Operated Control Valve Fig. 22 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Top-Feed, Free-Draining) Fig. 22 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Top-Feed, Free-Draining) Fig. 22 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Top-Feed, Free-Draining) Fig. 22 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Top-Feed, Free-Draining) Direct-Expansion Air Coils Direct-Expansion Air Coils Fig. 23 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Horizontal Airflow) Fig. 23 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Horizontal Airflow) Fig. 23 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Horizontal Airflow) Fig. 23 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Horizontal Airflow) Fig. 32 Three-Way Condenser-Pressure-Regulating Valve Fig. 32 Three-Way Condenser-Pressure-Regulating Valve |
| 28 | Fig. 24 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Bottom-Feed) Fig. 24 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Bottom-Feed) Fig. 24 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Bottom-Feed) Fig. 24 Direct-Expansion Evaporator (Bottom-Feed) Flooded Evaporators Flooded Evaporators Fig. 25 Flooded Evaporator (Gravity Circulation) Fig. 25 Flooded Evaporator (Gravity Circulation) Fig. 25 Flooded Evaporator (Gravity Circulation) Fig. 25 Flooded Evaporator (Gravity Circulation) Fig. 26 Flooded Evaporator (Forced Circulation) Fig. 26 Flooded Evaporator (Forced Circulation) Fig. 26 Flooded Evaporator (Forced Circulation) Fig. 26 Flooded Evaporator (Forced Circulation) Refrigeration Accessories Refrigeration Accessories Liquid-Suction Heat Exchangers Liquid-Suction Heat Exchangers |
| 29 | Fig. 27 Soldered Tube Heat Exchanger Fig. 27 Soldered Tube Heat Exchanger Fig. 27 Soldered Tube Heat Exchanger Fig. 27 Soldered Tube Heat Exchanger Fig. 28 Shell-and-Finned-Coil Heat Exchanger Fig. 28 Shell-and-Finned-Coil Heat Exchanger Fig. 28 Shell-and-Finned-Coil Heat Exchanger Fig. 28 Shell-and-Finned-Coil Heat Exchanger Fig. 29 Shell-and-Finned-Coil Exchanger Installed to Prevent Liquid Floodback Fig. 29 Shell-and-Finned-Coil Exchanger Installed to Prevent Liquid Floodback Fig. 29 Shell-and-Finned-Coil Exchanger Installed to Prevent Liquid Floodback Fig. 29 Shell-and-Finned-Coil Exchanger Installed to Prevent Liquid Floodback Fig. 30 Tube-in-Tube Heat Exchanger Fig. 30 Tube-in-Tube Heat Exchanger Fig. 30 Tube-in-Tube Heat Exchanger Fig. 30 Tube-in-Tube Heat Exchanger Two-Stage Subcoolers Two-Stage Subcoolers |
| 30 | Fig. 31 Flash-Type Cooler Fig. 31 Flash-Type Cooler Fig. 31 Flash-Type Cooler Fig. 31 Flash-Type Cooler Fig. 32 Closed-Type Subcooler Fig. 32 Closed-Type Subcooler Fig. 32 Closed-Type Subcooler Fig. 32 Closed-Type Subcooler Discharge Line Oil Separators Discharge Line Oil Separators Surge Drums or Accumulators Surge Drums or Accumulators Fig. 39 Four-Way Refrigerant-Reversing Valve Shown in Heating Mode Fig. 39 Four-Way Refrigerant-Reversing Valve Shown in Heating Mode |
| 31 | Compressor Floodback Protection Compressor Floodback Protection Fig. 33 Compressor Floodback Protection Using Accumulator with Controlled Bleed Fig. 33 Compressor Floodback Protection Using Accumulator with Controlled Bleed Fig. 33 Compressor Floodback Protection Using Accumulator with Controlled Bleed Fig. 33 Compressor Floodback Protection Using Accumulator with Controlled Bleed Refrigerant Driers and Moisture Indicators Refrigerant Driers and Moisture Indicators Fig. 34 Drier with Piping Connections Fig. 34 Drier with Piping Connections Fig. 34 Drier with Piping Connections Fig. 34 Drier with Piping Connections Strainers Strainers |
| 32 | Liquid Indicators Liquid Indicators Fig. 35 Sight Glass and Charging Valve Locations Fig. 35 Sight Glass and Charging Valve Locations Fig. 35 Sight Glass and Charging Valve Locations Fig. 35 Sight Glass and Charging Valve Locations Oil Receivers Oil Receivers Purge Units Purge Units Head Pressure Control for Refrigerant Condensers Head Pressure Control for Refrigerant Condensers Water-Cooled Condensers Water-Cooled Condensers Condenser-Water-Regulating Valves Condenser-Water-Regulating Valves Water Bypass Water Bypass Fig. 36 Head Pressure Control for Condensers Used with Cooling Towers (Water Bypass Modulation) Fig. 36 Head Pressure Control for Condensers Used with Cooling Towers (Water Bypass Modulation) Fig. 36 Head Pressure Control for Condensers Used with Cooling Towers (Water Bypass Modulation) Fig. 36 Head Pressure Control for Condensers Used with Cooling Towers (Water Bypass Modulation) Evaporative Condensers Evaporative Condensers |
| 33 | Fig. 37 Head Pressure Control for Evaporative Condenser (Air Intake Modulation) Fig. 37 Head Pressure Control for Evaporative Condenser (Air Intake Modulation) Fig. 37 Head Pressure Control for Evaporative Condenser (Air Intake Modulation) Fig. 37 Head Pressure Control for Evaporative Condenser (Air Intake Modulation) Fig. 38 Head Pressure for Evaporative Condenser (Air Bypass Modulation) Fig. 38 Head Pressure for Evaporative Condenser (Air Bypass Modulation) Fig. 38 Head Pressure Control for Evaporative Condenser (Air Bypass Modulation) Fig. 38 Head Pressure Control for Evaporative Condenser (Air Bypass Modulation) Air-Cooled Condensers Air-Cooled Condensers Keeping Liquid from Crankcase During Off Cycles Keeping Liquid from Crankcase During Off Cycles Automatic Pumpdown Control (Direct-Expansion Air-Cooling Systems) Automatic Pumpdown Control (Direct-Expansion Air-Cooling Systems) |
| 34 | Crankcase Oil Heater (Direct-Expansion Systems) Crankcase Oil Heater (Direct-Expansion Systems) Control for Direct-Expansion Water Chillers Control for Direct-Expansion Water Chillers Effect of Short Operating Cycle Effect of Short Operating Cycle Hot-Gas Bypass Arrangements Hot-Gas Bypass Arrangements Full (100%) Unloading for Starting Full (100%) Unloading for Starting Full (100%) Unloading for Capacity Control Full (100%) Unloading for Capacity Control |
| 35 | Fig. 39 Hot-Gas Bypass Arrangements Fig. 39 Hot-Gas Bypass Arrangements Fig. 39 Hot-Gas Bypass Arrangements Fig. 39 Hot-Gas Bypass Arrangements Safety Requirements Safety Requirements References References |
| 37 | I-P_R10_Ch02 I-P_R10_Ch02 Ammonia Refrigerant for HVAC Systems Ammonia Refrigerant for HVAC Systems System Selection System Selection Single-Stage Systems Single-Stage Systems Fig. 1 Shell-and-Coil Economizer Arrangement Fig. 1 Shell-and-Coil Economizer Arrangement Fig. 1 Shell-and-Coil Economizer Arrangement Fig. 1 Shell-and-Coil Economizer Arrangement Economized Systems Economized Systems Multistage Systems Multistage Systems |
| 38 | Fig. 2 Two-Stage System with High- and Low-Temperature Loads Fig. 2 Two-Stage System with High- and Low-Temperature Loads Fig. 2 Two-Stage System with High- and Low-Temperature Loads Fig. 2 Two-Stage System with High- and Low-Temperature Loads Equipment Equipment Compressors Compressors Condensers Condensers Evaporators Evaporators |
| 39 | Vessels Vessels Fig. 3 Intercooler Fig. 3 Intercooler Fig. 3 Intercooler Fig. 3 Intercooler |
| 40 | Fig. 4 Arrangement for Compound System with Vertical Intercooler and Suction Trap Fig. 4 Arrangement for Compound System with Vertical Intercooler and Suction Trap Fig. 4 Arrangement for Compound System with Vertical Intercooler and Suction Trap Fig. 4 Arrangement for Compound System with Vertical Intercooler and Suction Trap Fig. 5 Suction Accumulator with Warm Liquid Coil Fig. 5 Suction Accumulator with Warm Liquid Coil Fig. 5 Suction Accumulator with Warm Liquid Coil Fig. 5 Suction Accumulator with Warm Liquid Coil |
| 41 | Fig. 6 Equalized Pressure Pump Transfer System Fig. 6 Equalized Pressure Pump Transfer System Fig. 6 Equalized Pressure Pump Transfer System Fig. 6 Equalized Pressure Pump Transfer System Fig. 7 Gravity Transfer System Fig. 7 Gravity Transfer System Fig. 7 Gravity Transfer System Fig. 7 Gravity Transfer System Fig. 8 Piping for Vertical Suction Trap and High-Head Pump Fig. 8 Piping for Vertical Suction Trap and High-Head Pump Fig. 8 Piping for Vertical Suction Trap and High- Head Pump Fig. 8 Piping for Vertical Suction Trap and High- Head Pump Fig. 9 Gage Glass Assembly for Ammonia Fig. 9 Gage Glass Assembly for Ammonia Fig. 9 Gage Glass Assembly for Ammonia Fig. 9 Gage Glass Assembly for Ammonia Fig. 10 Electronic Liquid Level Control Fig. 10 Electronic Liquid Level Control Fig. 10 Electronic Liquid Level Control Fig. 10 Electronic Liquid Level Control |
| 42 | Fig. 11 Purge Unit and Piping for Noncondensable Gas Fig. 11 Purge Unit and Piping for Noncondensable Gas Fig. 11 Noncondensable Gas and Water Removal Unit Fig. 11 Noncondensable Gas and Water Removal Unit |
| 43 | Lubricant Management Lubricant Management Controls Controls Liquid Feed Control Liquid Feed Control Controlling Load During Pulldown Controlling Load During Pulldown Operation at Varying Loads and Temperatures Operation at Varying Loads and Temperatures |
| 44 | Fig. 12 Hot-Gas Injection Evaporator for Operations at Low Load Fig. 12 Hot-Gas Injection Evaporator for Operations at Low Load Fig. 12 Hot-Gas Injection Evaporator for Operations at Low Load Fig. 12 Hot-Gas Injection Evaporator for Operations at Low Load Electronic Control Electronic Control Piping Piping Recommended Material Recommended Material Fittings Fittings Pipe Joints Pipe Joints Pipe Location Pipe Location Pipe Sizing Pipe Sizing |
| 45 | Table 1 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Ammonia with Pressure Drops of 0.25 and 0.50°F per 100 ft Equivalent Table 1 Suction Line Capacities in Tons for Ammonia with Pressure Drops of 0.25 and 0.50°F per 100 ft Equivalent Valves Valves |
| 46 | Table 2 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Ammonia (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 2 Suction, Discharge, and Liquid Line Capacities in Tons for Ammonia (Single- or High-Stage Applications) Table 3 Liquid Ammonia Line Capacities Table 3 Liquid Ammonia Line Capacities |
| 47 | Fig. 13 Dual Relief Valve Fitting for Ammonia Fig. 13 Dual Relief Valve Fitting for Ammonia Fig. 13 Dual Relief Valve Fitting for Ammonia Fig. 13 Dual Relief Valve Fitting for Ammonia Isolated Line Sections Isolated Line Sections Insulation and Vapor Retarders Insulation and Vapor Retarders Reciprocating Compressors Reciprocating Compressors Piping Piping Fig. 14 Schematic of Reciprocating Compressors Operating in Parallel Fig. 14 Schematic of Reciprocating Compressors Operating in Parallel Fig. 14 Schematic of Reciprocating Compressors Operating in Parallel Fig. 14 Schematic of Reciprocating Compressors Operating in Parallel |
| 48 | Cooling Cooling Fig. 15 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Temperatures Above Freezing Fig. 15 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Temperatures Above Freezing Fig. 15 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Temperatures Above Freezing Fig. 15 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Temperatures Above Freezing Fig. 16 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Temperatures Below Freezing Fig. 16 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Temperatures Below Freezing Fig. 16 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Temperatures Below Freezing Fig. 16 Jacket Water Cooling for Ambient Temperatures Below Freezing Rotary Vane, Low-Stage Compressors Rotary Vane, Low-Stage Compressors Piping Piping |
| 49 | Fig. 17 Rotary Vane Booster Compressor Cooling with Lubricant Fig. 17 Rotary Vane Booster Compressor Cooling with Lubricant Fig. 17 Rotary Vane Booster Compressor Cooling with Lubricant Fig. 17 Rotary Vane Booster Compressor Cooling with Lubricant Cooling Cooling Screw Compressors Screw Compressors Piping Piping Fig. 18 Fixed Vi Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Indirect Lubricant Cooling Fig. 18 Fixed Vi Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Indirect Lubricant Cooling Fig. 18 Fixed-Vi Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Indirect Lubricant Cooling Fig. 18 Fixed-Vi Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Indirect Lubricant Cooling |
| 50 | Fig. 19 Fixed Vi Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Liquid Injection Cooling Fig. 19 Fixed Vi Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Liquid Injection Cooling Fig. 19 Fixed-Vi Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Liquid Injection Cooling Fig. 19 Fixed-Vi Screw Compressor Flow Diagram with Liquid Injection Cooling Lubricant Cooling Lubricant Cooling Fig. 20 Flow Diagram for Variable Vi Screw Compressor High-Stage Only Fig. 20 Flow Diagram for Variable Vi Screw Compressor High-Stage Only Fig. 20 Flow Diagram for Variable-Vi Screw Compressor High-Stage Only Fig. 20 Flow Diagram for Variable-Vi Screw Compressor High-Stage Only |
| 51 | Fig. 21 Flow Diagram for Screw Compressors with Refrigerant Injection Cooling Fig. 21 Flow Diagram for Screw Compressors with Refrigerant Injection Cooling Fig. 21 Flow Diagram for Screw Compressors with Refrigerant Injection Cooling Fig. 21 Flow Diagram for Screw Compressors with Refrigerant Injection Cooling Fig. 22 Typical Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling System with Thermosiphon Accumulator Fig. 22 Typical Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling System with Thermosiphon Accumulator Fig. 22 Typical Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling System with Thermosiphon Accumulator Fig. 22 Typical Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling System with Thermosiphon Accumulator Fig. 23 Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling System with Receiver Mounted Above Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooler Fig. 23 Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling System with Receiver Mounted Above Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooler Fig. 23 Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling System with Receiver Mounted Above Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooler Fig. 23 Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooling System with Receiver Mounted Above Thermosiphon Lubricant Cooler |
| 52 | Fig. 24 Typical Thermosiphon System with Multiple Oil Coolers Fig. 24 Typical Thermosiphon System with Multiple Oil Coolers Fig. 24 Typical Thermosiphon System with Multiple Oil Coolers Fig. 24 Typical Thermosiphon System with Multiple Oil Coolers Fig. 25 Typical Hydraulic System for Slide Valve Capacity Control for Screw Compressor with Fixed Vi Fig. 25 Typical Hydraulic System for Slide Valve Capacity Control for Screw Compressor with Fixed Vi Fig. 25 Typical Hydraulic System for Slide Valve Capacity Control for Screw Compressor with Fixed Vi Fig. 25 Typical Hydraulic System for Slide Valve Capacity Control for Screw Compressor with Fixed Vi Fig. 26 Typical Positioning System for Slide Valve and Slide Stop for Variable Vi Screw Compressor Fig. 26 Typical Positioning System for Slide Valve and Slide Stop for Variable Vi Screw Compressor Fig. 26 Typical Positioning System for Slide Valve and Slide Stop for Variable-Vi Screw Compressor Fig. 26 Typical Positioning System for Slide Valve and Slide Stop for Variable-Vi Screw Compressor Condenser and Receiver Piping Condenser and Receiver Piping Horizontal Shell-and-Tube Condenser and Through-Type Receiver Horizontal Shell-and-Tube Condenser and Through-Type Receiver |
| 53 | Fig. 27 Horizontal Condenser and Top Inlet Receiver Piping Fig. 27 Horizontal Condenser and Top Inlet Receiver Piping Fig. 27 Horizontal Condenser and Top Inlet Receiver Piping Fig. 27 Horizontal Condenser and Top Inlet Receiver Piping Fig. 28 Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 28 Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 28 Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 28 Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Parallel Horizontal Shell-and-Tube Condensers Parallel Horizontal Shell-and-Tube Condensers Fig. 29 Single Evaporative Condenser with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 29 Single Evaporative Condenser with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 29 Single Evaporative Condenser with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 29 Single Evaporative Condenser with Top Inlet Receiver Evaporative Condensers Evaporative Condensers Location Location Installation Installation |
| 54 | Fig. 30 Evaporative Condenser with Inside Water Tank Fig. 30 Evaporative Condenser with Inside Water Tank Fig. 30 Evaporative Condenser with Inside Water Tank Fig. 30 Evaporative Condenser with Inside Water Tank Fig. 31 Two Evaporative Condensers with Trapped Piping to Receiver Fig. 31 Two Evaporative Condensers with Trapped Piping to Receiver Fig. 31 Two Evaporative Condensers with Trapped Piping to Receiver Fig. 31 Two Evaporative Condensers with Trapped Piping to Receiver Fig. 32 Method of Reducing Condenser Outlet Sizes Fig. 32 Method of Reducing Condenser Outlet Sizes Fig. 32 Method of Reducing Condenser Outlet Sizes Fig. 32 Method of Reducing Condenser Outlet Sizes Evaporator Piping Evaporator Piping |
| 55 | Fig. 33 Piping for Shell-and-Tube and Evaporative Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 33 Piping for Shell-and-Tube and Evaporative Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 33 Piping for Shell-and-Tube and Evaporative Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 33 Piping for Shell-and-Tube and Evaporative Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 34 Piping for Parallel Condensers with Surge-Type Receiver Fig. 34 Piping for Parallel Condensers with Surge-Type Receiver Fig. 34 Piping for Parallel Condensers with Surge-Type Receiver Fig. 34 Piping for Parallel Condensers with Surge-Type Receiver Fig. 35 Piping for Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 35 Piping for Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 35 Piping for Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Fig. 35 Piping for Parallel Condensers with Top Inlet Receiver Unit Cooler: Flooded Operation Unit Cooler: Flooded Operation |
| 56 | Fig. 36 Piping for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Application for Automatic Defrost on Unit Cooler Fig. 36 Piping for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Application for Automatic Defrost on Unit Cooler Fig. 36 Piping for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Application for Automatic Defrost on Unit Cooler Fig. 36 Piping for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Application for Automatic Defrost on Unit Cooler Fig. 37 Arrangement for Automatic Defrost of Air Blower with Flooded Coil Fig. 37 Arrangement for Automatic Defrost of Air Blower with Flooded Coil Fig. 37 Arrangement for Automatic Defrost of Air Blower with Flooded Coil Fig. 37 Arrangement for Automatic Defrost of Air Blower with Flooded Coil Fig. 38 Arrangement for Horizontal Liquid Cooler and High-Side Float Fig. 38 Arrangement for Horizontal Liquid Cooler and High-Side Float Fig. 38 Arrangement for Horizontal Liquid Cooler and High-Side Float Fig. 38 Arrangement for Horizontal Liquid Cooler and High-Side Float High-Side Float Control High-Side Float Control |
| 57 | Low-Side Float Control Low-Side Float Control Fig. 39 Piping for Evaporator and Low-Side Float with Horizontal Liquid Cooler Fig. 39 Piping for Evaporator and Low-Side Float with Horizontal Liquid Cooler Fig. 39 Piping for Evaporator and Low-Side Float with Horizontal Liquid Cooler Fig. 39 Piping for Evaporator and Low-Side Float with Horizontal Liquid Cooler Multistage Systems Multistage Systems Two-Stage Screw Compressor System Two-Stage Screw Compressor System |
| 58 | Fig. 40 Compound Ammonia System with Screw Compressor Thermosiphon Cooled Fig. 40 Compound Ammonia System with Screw Compressor Thermosiphon Cooled Fig. 40 Compound Ammonia System with Screw Compressor Thermosiphon Cooled Fig. 40 Compound Ammonia System with Screw Compressor Thermosiphon Cooled Converting Single-Stage into Two-Stage Systems Converting Single-Stage into Two-Stage Systems Liquid Recirculation Systems Liquid Recirculation Systems |
| 59 | Fig. 41 Piping for Single-Stage System with Low-Pressure Receiver and Liquid Ammonia Recirculation Fig. 41 Piping for Single-Stage System with Low-Pressure Receiver and Liquid Ammonia Recirculation Fig. 41 Piping for Single-Stage System with Low-Pressure Receiver and Liquid Ammonia Recirculation Fig. 41 Piping for Single-Stage System with Low-Pressure Receiver and Liquid Ammonia Recirculation Hot-Gas Defrost Hot-Gas Defrost |
| 60 | Fig. 42 Conventional Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle Fig. 42 Conventional Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle Fig. 42 Conventional Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle Fig. 42 Conventional Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle |
| 61 | Fig. 43 Demand Defrost Cycle Fig. 43 Demand Defrost Cycle Fig. 43 Demand Defrost Cycle Fig. 43 Demand Defrost Cycle Fig. 44 Equipment Room Hot-Gas Pressure Control System Fig. 44 Equipment Room Hot-Gas Pressure Control System Fig. 44 Equipment Room Hot-Gas Pressure Control System Fig. 44 Equipment Room Hot-Gas Pressure Control System Fig. 45 Hot-Gas Condensate Return Drainer Fig. 45 Hot-Gas Condensate Return Drainer Fig. 45 Hot-Gas Condensate Return Drainer Fig. 45 Hot-Gas Condensate Return Drainer |
| 62 | Fig. 46 Soft Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle Fig. 46 Soft Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle Fig. 46 Soft Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle Fig. 46 Soft Hot-Gas Defrost Cycle Double Riser Designs for Large Evaporator Coils Double Riser Designs for Large Evaporator Coils Fig. 47 Recirculated Liquid Return System Fig. 47 Recirculated Liquid Return System Fig. 47 Recirculated Liquid Return System Fig. 47 Recirculated Liquid Return System |
| 63 | Fig. 48 Double Low-Temperature Suction Risers Fig. 48 Double Low-Temperature Suction Risers Fig. 48 Double Low-Temperature Suction Risers Fig. 48 Double Low-Temperature Suction Risers Safety Considerations Safety Considerations Avoiding Hydraulic Shock Avoiding Hydraulic Shock |
| 64 | Hazards Related to System Cleanliness Hazards Related to System Cleanliness References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 65 | I-P_R10_Ch03 I-P_R10_Ch03 Table 1 Refrigerant Data Table 1 Refrigerant Data |
| 66 | Table 2 Comparative Refrigerant Performance per Ton of Refrigeration Table 2 Comparative Refrigerant Performance per Ton of Refrigeration Fig. 1 CO2 Expansion-Phase Changes Fig. 1 CO2 Expansion-Phase Changes Fig. 1 CO2 Expansion-Phase Changes Fig. 1 CO2 Expansion-Phase Changes Fig. 2 CO2 Phase Diagram Fig. 2 CO2 Phase Diagram Fig. 2 CO2 Phase Diagram Fig. 2 CO2 Phase Diagram Applications Applications Transcritical CO2 Refrigeration Transcritical CO2 Refrigeration |
| 67 | CO2 Cascade System CO2 Cascade System System Design System Design Transcritical CO2 Systems Transcritical CO2 Systems Fig. 1 CO2 Expansion-Phase Changes Fig. 1 CO2 Expansion-Phase Changes Fig. 3 Transcritical CO2 Refrigeration Cycle in Appliances and Vending Machines Fig. 3 Transcritical CO2 Refrigeration Cycle in Appliances and Vending Machines CO2/HFC Cascade Systems CO2/HFC Cascade Systems |
| 68 | Fig. 2 CO2 Heat Pump for Ambient Heat to Hot Water Fig. 2 CO2 Heat Pump for Ambient Heat to Hot Water Fig. 4 CO2 Heat Pump for Ambient Heat to Hot Water Fig. 4 CO2 Heat Pump for Ambient Heat to Hot Water Fig. 3 R-717/CO2 Cascade System with CO2 Hot-Gas Defrosting Fig. 3 R-717/CO2 Cascade System with CO2 Hot-Gas Defrosting Fig. 5 R-717/CO2 Cascade System with CO2 Hot-Gas Defrosting Fig. 5 R-717/CO2 Cascade System with CO2 Hot-Gas Defrosting Ammonia/CO2 Cascade Refrigeration System Ammonia/CO2 Cascade Refrigeration System System Design Pressures System Design Pressures |
| 69 | Fig. 4 CO2 Cascade System with Two Temperature Levels Fig. 4 CO2 Cascade System with Two Temperature Levels Fig. 6 CO2 Cascade System with Two Temperature Levels Fig. 6 CO2 Cascade System with Two Temperature Levels Valves Valves CO2 Monitoring CO2 Monitoring Water in CO2 Systems Water in CO2 Systems System Safety System Safety |
| 70 | Fig. 5 Dual-Temperature Supermarket System: R-404 and CO2 with Cascade Condenser Fig. 5 Dual-Temperature Supermarket System: R-404 and CO2 with Cascade Condenser Fig. 7 Dual-Temperature Supermarket System: R-404A and CO2 with Cascade Condenser Fig. 7 Dual-Temperature Supermarket System: R-404A and CO2 with Cascade Condenser Piping Piping Carbon Dioxide Piping Materials Carbon Dioxide Piping Materials Carbon Steel Piping for CO2 Carbon Steel Piping for CO2 |
| 71 | Fig. 6 Dual-Temperature Ammonia Cascade System Fig. 6 Dual-Temperature Ammonia Cascade System Fig. 8 Dual-Temperature Ammonia (R-717) Cascade System Fig. 8 Dual-Temperature Ammonia (R-717) Cascade System Fig. 7 Water Solubility in Various Refrigerants Fig. 7 Water Solubility in Various Refrigerants Fig. 9 Water Solubility in Various Refrigerants Fig. 9 Water Solubility in Various Refrigerants Pipe Sizing Pipe Sizing Fig. 8 Water Solubility in CO2 Fig. 8 Water Solubility in CO2 Fig. 10 Water Solubility in CO2 Fig. 10 Water Solubility in CO2 |
| 72 | Table 3 Pipe Size Comparison Between NH3 and CO2 Table 3 Pipe Size Comparison Between NH3 and CO2 Fig. 9 Pressure drop for various refrigerants Fig. 9 Pressure drop for various refrigerants Fig. 11 Pressure Drop for Various Refrigerants Fig. 11 Pressure Drop for Various Refrigerants Heat Exchangers and Vessels Heat Exchangers and Vessels Gravity Liquid Separator Gravity Liquid Separator Recirculator Recirculator Cascade Heat Exchanger Cascade Heat Exchanger Compressors for CO2 Refrigeration Systems Compressors for CO2 Refrigeration Systems Transcritical Compressors for Commercial Refrigeration Transcritical Compressors for Commercial Refrigeration |
| 73 | Fig. 10 CO2 Transcritical Compressor Configuration Chart Fig. 10 CO2 Transcritical Compressor Configuration Chart Fig. 12 CO2 Transcritical Compressor Configuration Chart Fig. 12 CO2 Transcritical Compressor Configuration Chart Compressors for Industrial Applications Compressors for Industrial Applications Lubricants Lubricants Evaporators Evaporators |
| 74 | Defrost Defrost Electric Defrost Electric Defrost Hot-Gas Defrost Hot-Gas Defrost Reverse-Cycle Defrost Reverse-Cycle Defrost |
| 75 | High Pressure Liquid Defrost High Pressure Liquid Defrost Water Defrost Water Defrost Installation, Start-up, and Commissioning Installation, Start-up, and Commissioning References References |
| 76 | Bibliography Bibliography Acknowledgment Acknowledgment |
| 77 | I-P_R10_Ch04 I-P_R10_Ch04 Terminology Terminology Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages and Disadvantages Overfeed System Operation Overfeed System Operation Mechanical Pump Mechanical Pump |
| 78 | Fig. 1 Liquid Overfeed with Mechanical Pump Fig. 1 Liquid Overfeed with Mechanical Pump Fig. 1 Liquid Overfeed with Mechanical Pump Fig. 1 Liquid Overfeed with Mechanical Pump Fig. 2 Pump Circulation, Horizontal Separator Fig. 2 Pump Circulation, Horizontal Separator Fig. 2 Pump Circulation, Horizontal Separator Fig. 2 Pump Circulation, Horizontal Separator Fig. 3 Double Pumper Drum System Fig. 3 Double Pumper Drum System Fig. 3 Double-Pumper-Drum System Fig. 3 Double-Pumper-Drum System Gas Pump Gas Pump Fig. 4 Constant-Pressure Liquid Overfeed System Fig. 4 Constant-Pressure Liquid Overfeed System Fig. 4 Constant-Pressure Liquid Overfeed System Fig. 4 Constant-Pressure Liquid Overfeed System Refrigerant Distribution Refrigerant Distribution |
| 79 | Fig. 5 Liquid Overfeed System Connected on Common System with Gravity-Flooded Evaporators Fig. 5 Liquid Overfeed System Connected on Common System with Gravity-Flooded Evaporators Fig. 5 Liquid Overfeed System Connected on Common System with Gravity-Flooded Evaporators Fig. 5 Liquid Overfeed System Connected on Common System with Gravity-Flooded Evaporators Oil in System Oil in System Fig. 6 Oil Drain Pot Connected to Low-Pressure Receiver Fig. 6 Oil Drain Pot Connected to Low-Pressure Receiver Fig. 6 Oil Drain Pot Connected to Low-Pressure Receiver Fig. 6 Oil Drain Pot Connected to Low-Pressure Receiver Circulating Rate Circulating Rate |
| 80 | Table 1 Recommended Minimum Circulating Rate Table 1 Recommended Minimum Circulating Rate Fig. 7 Charts for Determining Rate of Refrigerant Feed (No Flash Gas) Fig. 7 Charts for Determining Rate of Refrigerant Feed (No Flash Gas) Fig. 7 Charts for Determining Rate of Refrigerant Feed (No Flash Gas) Fig. 7 Charts for Determining Rate of Refrigerant Feed (No Flash Gas) Pump Selection and Installation Pump Selection and Installation Types of Pumps Types of Pumps |
| 81 | Installing and Connecting Mechanical Pumps Installing and Connecting Mechanical Pumps Controls Controls Evaporator Design Evaporator Design Considerations Considerations |
| 82 | Top Feed Versus Bottom Feed Top Feed Versus Bottom Feed Refrigerant Charge Refrigerant Charge Start-Up and Operation Start-Up and Operation Operating Costs and Efficiency Operating Costs and Efficiency Line Sizing Line Sizing |
| 83 | Low-Pressure Receiver Sizing Low-Pressure Receiver Sizing Fig. 8 Basic Horizontal Gas-and-Liquid Separator Fig. 8 Basic Horizontal Gas-and-Liquid Separator Fig. 8 Basic Horizontal Gas-and-Liquid Separator Fig. 8 Basic Horizontal Gas-and-Liquid Separator Fig. 9 Basic Vertical Gravity Gas and Liquid Separator Fig. 9 Basic Vertical Gravity Gas and Liquid Separator Fig. 9 Basic Vertical Gravity Gas and Liquid Separator Fig. 9 Basic Vertical Gravity Gas and Liquid Separator |
| 84 | Table 2 Maximum Effective Separation Velocities for R-717, R-22, R-12, and R-502, with Steady Flow Conditions Table 2 Maximum Effective Separation Velocities for R-717, R-22, R-12, and R-502, with Steady Flow Conditions References References |
| 85 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 87 | I-P_R10_Ch05 I-P_R10_Ch05 Refrigeration System Refrigeration System Components Components |
| 88 | Selecting Design Balance Points Selecting Design Balance Points |
| 89 | Fig. 1 Brine Chiller Balance Curve Fig. 1 Brine Chiller Balance Curve Fig. 1 Brine Chiller Balance Curve Fig. 1 Brine Chiller Balance Curve Energy and Mass Balances Energy and Mass Balances |
| 90 | System Performance System Performance |
| 91 | I-P_R10_Ch06 I-P_R10_Ch06 Refrigerants Refrigerants Environmental Acceptability Environmental Acceptability Compositional Groups Compositional Groups |
| 92 | Table 1 Refrigerant Properties: Regulatory Compliance Values Used by Governments for UNFCCC Reporting and Kyoto Protocol Compliance Table 1 Refrigerant Properties: Regulatory Compliance Values Used by Governments for UNFCCC Reporting and Kyoto Protocol Compliance Table 2 Refrigerant Properties: Current IPCC Scientific Assessment Values Table 2 Refrigerant Properties: Current IPCC Scientific Assessment Values |
| 93 | Table 3 Properties of Refrigerant Blendsa Table 3 Properties of Refrigerant Blendsa |
| 94 | Refrigerant Analysis Refrigerant Analysis Flammability and Combustibility Flammability and Combustibility Chemical Reactions Chemical Reactions Halocarbons Halocarbons |
| 95 | Table 4 Inherent Thermal Stability of Halocarbon Refrigerants Table 4 Inherent Thermal Stability of Halocarbon Refrigerants Table 5 Rate of Hydrolysis in Water (Grams per Litre of Water per Year) Table 5 Rate of Hydrolysis in Water (Grams per Litre of Water per Year) Ammonia Ammonia Fig. 1 Types of Alcohols Used for Ester Synthesis Fig. 1 Types of Alcohols Used for Ester Synthesis Fig. 1 Types of Alcohols Used for Ester Synthesis Fig. 1 Types of Alcohols Used for Ester Synthesis Table 6 Influence of Type of Alcohol on Ester Viscosity Table 6 Influence of Type of Alcohol on Ester Viscosity Lubricants Lubricants |
| 96 | Table 7 R-134a Miscibility and Viscosity of Several Pentaerythritol-Based Esters Table 7 R-134a Miscibility and Viscosity of Several Pentaerythritol-Based Esters |
| 97 | Lubricant Additives Lubricant Additives System Reactions System Reactions |
| 98 | Fig. 2 Stability of Refrigerant 22 Control System Fig. 2 Stability of Refrigerant 22 Control System Fig. 2 Stability of Refrigerant 22 Control System Fig. 2 Stability of Refrigerant 22 Control System Fig. 3 Stability of Refrigerant 22 Control System Fig. 3 Stability of Refrigerant 22 Control System Fig. 3 Stability of Refrigerant 12 Control System Fig. 3 Stability of Refrigerant 12 Control System Copper Plating Copper Plating Corrosion of Refrigerant Piping and Heat Exchangers Corrosion of Refrigerant Piping and Heat Exchangers Formicary Corrosion Formicary Corrosion |
| 99 | Contaminant Generation by High Temperature Contaminant Generation by High Temperature Compatibility of Materials Compatibility of Materials Electrical Insulation Electrical Insulation |
| 100 | Fig. 4 Loss Curves of Various Insulating Materials Fig. 4 Loss Curves of Various Insulating Materials Fig. 4 Loss Curves of Various Insulating Materials Fig. 4 Loss Curves of Various Insulating Materials Table 8 Maximum Temperature tmax for Hermetic Wire Enamels in R-22 at 65 psia Table 8 Maximum Temperature tmax for Hermetic Wire Enamels in R-22 at 65 psia Table 9 Effect of Liquid R-22 on Abrasion Resistance Table 9 Effect of Liquid R-22 on Abrasion Resistance |
| 101 | Elastomers Elastomers Plastics Plastics Chemical Evaluation Techniques Chemical Evaluation Techniques Sealed-Tube Material Tests Sealed-Tube Material Tests Component Tests Component Tests System Tests System Tests Capillary Tube Clogging Tests Capillary Tube Clogging Tests |
| 102 | Mitigation Aspects Mitigation Aspects Sustainability Sustainability References References |
| 105 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 107 | I-P_R10_Ch07 I-P_R10_Ch07 Moisture Moisture Sources of Moisture Sources of Moisture Effects of Moisture Effects of Moisture Table 1 Solubility of Water in Liquid Phase of Certain Refrigerants, ppm (by weight) Table 1 Solubility of Water in Liquid Phase of Certain Refrigerants, ppm (by weight) |
| 108 | Table 2 Distribution of Water Between Vapor and Liquid Phases of Certain Refrigerants Table 2 Distribution of Water Between Vapor and Liquid Phases of Certain Refrigerants Drying Methods Drying Methods |
| 109 | Moisture Indicators Moisture Indicators Moisture Measurement Moisture Measurement Desiccants Desiccants |
| 110 | Fig. 1 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for R-12 and Three Common Desiccants at 75°F Fig. 1 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for R-12 and Three Common Desiccants at 75°F Fig. 1 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for R-12 and Three Common Desiccants at 75°F Fig. 1 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for R-12 and Three Common Desiccants at 75°F Table 3 Reactivation of Desiccants Table 3 Reactivation of Desiccants Fig. 2 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for R-22 and Three Common Desiccants at 75°F Fig. 2 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for R-22 and Three Common Desiccants at 75°F Fig. 2 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for R-22 and Three Common Desiccants at 75°F Fig. 2 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for R-22 and Three Common Desiccants at 75°F |
| 111 | Fig. 3 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Activated Alumina at Various Temperatures in R-12 Fig. 3 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Activated Alumina at Various Temperatures in R-12 Fig. 3 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Activated Alumina at Various Temperatures in R-12 Fig. 3 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Activated Alumina at Various Temperatures in R-12 Fig. 4 Moisture Equilibrium Curve for Molecular Sieve in R-134a at 125°F Fig. 4 Moisture Equilibrium Curve for Molecular Sieve in R-134a at 125°F Fig. 4 Moisture Equilibrium Curve for Molecular Sieve in R-134a at 125°F Fig. 4 Moisture Equilibrium Curve for Molecular Sieve in R-134a at 125°F Desiccant Applications Desiccant Applications Fig. 5 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 75°F Fig. 5 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 75°F Fig. 5 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 75°F Fig. 5 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 75°F Fig. 6 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 125°F Fig. 6 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 125°F Fig. 6 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 125°F Fig. 6 Moisture Equilibrium Curves for Three Common Desiccants in R-134a and 2% POE Lubricant at 125°F |
| 112 | Driers Driers Drier Selection Drier Selection Testing and Rating Testing and Rating Other Contaminants Other Contaminants Metallic Contaminants and Dirt Metallic Contaminants and Dirt |
| 113 | Organic Contaminants: Sludge, Wax, and Tars Organic Contaminants: Sludge, Wax, and Tars Residual Cleaning Agents Residual Cleaning Agents Noncondensable Gases Noncondensable Gases |
| 114 | Motor Burnouts Motor Burnouts Field Assembly Field Assembly System Cleanup Procedure After Hermetic Motor Burnout System Cleanup Procedure After Hermetic Motor Burnout Procedure Procedure |
| 115 | Fig. 7 Maximum Recommended Filter-Drier Pressure Drop Fig. 7 Maximum Recommended Filter-Drier Pressure Drop Fig. 7 Maximum Recommended Filter-Drier Pressure Drop Fig. 7 Maximum Recommended Filter-Drier Pressure Drop Special System Characteristics and Procedures Special System Characteristics and Procedures Contaminant Control During Retrofit Contaminant Control During Retrofit |
| 116 | Chiller Decontamination Chiller Decontamination References References |
| 117 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 119 | I-P_R10_Ch08 I-P_R10_Ch08 Dehydration (Moisture Removal) Dehydration (Moisture Removal) Sources of Moisture Sources of Moisture Dehydration by Heat, Vacuum, or Dry Air Dehydration by Heat, Vacuum, or Dry Air |
| 120 | Table 1 Typical Factory Dehydration and Moisture-Measuring Methods for Refrigeration Systems Table 1 Typical Factory Dehydration and Moisture-Measuring Methods for Refrigeration Systems Combination Methods Combination Methods |
| 121 | Moisture Measurement Moisture Measurement |
| 122 | Charging Charging Testing for Leaks Testing for Leaks Leak Detection Methods Leak Detection Methods |
| 123 | Special Considerations Special Considerations Performance Testing Performance Testing Compressor Testing Compressor Testing |
| 124 | Testing Complete Systems Testing Complete Systems Testing of Components Testing of Components |
| 125 | References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 127 | I-P_R10_Ch09 I-P_R10_Ch09 Emissions Types Emissions Types Design Design Installation Installation Servicing and Decommissioning Servicing and Decommissioning |
| 128 | Training Training Leak Detection Leak Detection Global Detection Global Detection Local Detection Local Detection Automated Performance Monitoring Systems Automated Performance Monitoring Systems Recovery, Recycling, and Reclamation Recovery, Recycling, and Reclamation |
| 129 | Installation and Service Practices Installation and Service Practices Contaminants Contaminants Recovery Recovery Fig. 1 Recovery Components Fig. 1 Recovery Components |
| 130 | Recycling Recycling Fig. 2 Single-Pass Recycling Fig. 2 Single-Pass Recycling Fig. 3 Multiple-Pass Recycling Fig. 3 Multiple-Pass Recycling Equipment Standards Equipment Standards |
| 131 | Special Considerations and Equipment for Handling Multiple Refrigerants Special Considerations and Equipment for Handling Multiple Refrigerants Reclamation Reclamation Purity Standards Purity Standards References References |
| 132 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 133 | I-P_R10_Ch10 I-P_R10_Ch10 Design Considerations for Below- Ambient Refrigerant Piping Design Considerations for Below- Ambient Refrigerant Piping Insulation Properties at Below-Ambient Temperatures Insulation Properties at Below-Ambient Temperatures |
| 134 | Insulation System Water Resistance Insulation System Water Resistance Insulation Systems Insulation Systems Pipe Preparation for Corrosion Control Pipe Preparation for Corrosion Control |
| 135 | Table 1 Protective Coating Systems for Carbon Steel Piping Table 1 Protective Coating Systems for Carbon Steel Piping |
| 136 | Table 2 Properties of Insulation Materials Table 2 Properties of Insulation Materials Table 3 Cellular Glass Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions Table 3 Cellular Glass Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions Insulation Materials Insulation Materials Table 4 Cellular Glass Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions Table 4 Cellular Glass Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions |
| 137 | Table 5 Flexible Elastomeric Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Table 5 Flexible Elastomeric Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Table 6 Flexible Elastomeric Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions Table 6 Flexible Elastomeric Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions Table 7 Closed-Cell Phenolic Foam Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Table 7 Closed-Cell Phenolic Foam Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Table 8 Closed-Cell Phenolic Foam Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions Table 8 Closed-Cell Phenolic Foam Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions |
| 138 | Table 9 Polyisocyanurate Foam Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Table 9 Polyisocyanurate Foam Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Table 10 Polyisocyanurate Foam Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions Table 10 Polyisocyanurate Foam Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions Table 11 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) Foam Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Table 11 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) Foam Insulation Thickness for Indoor Design Conditions Table 12 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions Table 12 Extruded Polystyrene (XPS) Insulation Thickness for Outdoor Design Conditions |
| 139 | Insulation Joint Sealant/Adhesive Insulation Joint Sealant/Adhesive Vapor Retarders Vapor Retarders Weather Barrier Jacketing Weather Barrier Jacketing |
| 140 | Installation Guidelines Installation Guidelines Table 13 Suggested Pipe Support Spacing for Straight Horizontal Runs Table 13 Suggested Pipe Support Spacing for Straight Horizontal Runs |
| 141 | Table 14 Shield Dimensions for Insulated Pipe and Tubing Table 14 Shield Dimensions for Insulated Pipe and Tubing Maintenance of Insulation Systems Maintenance of Insulation Systems Table 15 COLTE Values for Various Materials Table 15 COLTE Values for Various Materials References References |
| 142 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 143 | I-P_R10_Ch11 I-P_R10_Ch11 Control Switches Control Switches Pressure Switches Pressure Switches Fig. 1 Typical Pressure Switch Fig. 1 Typical Pressure Switch Fig. 1 Typical Pressure Switch Fig. 1 Typical Pressure Switch |
| 144 | Table 1 Various Types of Pressure Switches Table 1 Various Types of Pressure Switches Fig. 2 Miniaturized Pressure Switch Fig. 2 Miniaturized Pressure Switch Fig. 2 Miniaturized Pressure Switch Fig. 2 Miniaturized Pressure Switch Temperature Switches (Thermostats) Temperature Switches (Thermostats) Fig. 3 Indirect Temperature Switch Fig. 3 Indirect Temperature Switch Fig. 3 Indirect Temperature Switch Fig. 3 Indirect Temperature Switch Fig. 4 Direct Temperature Switch Fig. 4 Direct Temperature Switch Fig. 4 Direct Temperature Switch Fig. 4 Direct Temperature Switch Differential Switches Differential Switches |
| 145 | Fig. 5 Differential Switch Schematic Fig. 5 Differential Switch Schematic Fig. 5 Differential Switch Schematic Fig. 5 Differential Switch Schematic Fig. 6 Differential Pressure Switch Fig. 6 Differential Pressure Switch Fig. 6 Differential Pressure Switch Fig. 6 Differential Pressure Switch Fig. 7 Magnetic Float Switch Fig. 7 Magnetic Float Switch Fig. 7 Magnetic Float Switch Fig. 7 Magnetic Float Switch Float Switches Float Switches Operation and Selection Operation and Selection Application Application |
| 146 | Control Sensors Control Sensors Pressure Transducers Pressure Transducers Thermistors Thermistors Fig. 8 Typical NTC Thermistor Characteristic Fig. 8 Typical NTC Thermistor Characteristic Fig. 8 Typical NTC Thermistor Characteristic Fig. 8 Typical NTC Thermistor Characteristic Resistance Temperature Detectors Resistance Temperature Detectors Thermocouples Thermocouples Liquid Level Sensors Liquid Level Sensors Operation and Selection Operation and Selection Control Valves Control Valves |
| 147 | Fig. 9 Capacitance Probe in (A) Vertical Receiver and (B) Auxiliary Level Column Fig. 9 Capacitance Probe in (A) Vertical Receiver and (B) Auxiliary Level Column Fig. 9 Capacitance Probe in (A) Vertical Receiver and (B) Auxiliary Level Column Fig. 9 Capacitance Probe in (A) Vertical Receiver and (B) Auxiliary Level Column Fig. 10 Typical Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 10 Typical Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 10 Typical Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 10 Typical Thermostatic Expansion Valve Thermostatic Expansion Valves Thermostatic Expansion Valves Operation Operation |
| 148 | Fig. 11 Typical Balanced Port Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 11 Typical Balanced Port Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 11 Typical Balanced Port Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 11 Typical Balanced Port Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 12 Thermostatic Expansion Valve Controlling Flow of Liquid R- 410A Entering Evaporator, Assuming R- 410A Charge in Bulb Fig. 12 Thermostatic Expansion Valve Controlling Flow of Liquid R- 410A Entering Evaporator, Assuming R- 410A Charge in Bulb Fig. 12 Thermostatic Expansion Valve Controlling Flow of Liquid R- 410A Entering Evaporator, Assuming R- 410A Charge in Bulb Fig. 12 Thermostatic Expansion Valve Controlling Flow of Liquid R- 410A Entering Evaporator, Assuming R- 410A Charge in Bulb Capacity Capacity Fig. 13 Typical Gradient Curve for Thermostatic Expansion Valves Fig. 13 Typical Gradient Curve for Thermostatic Expansion Valves Fig. 13 Typical Gradient Curve for Thermostatic Expansion Valves Fig. 13 Typical Gradient Curve for Thermostatic Expansion Valves |
| 149 | Thermostatic Charges Thermostatic Charges Fig. 14 Pressure-Temperature Relationship of R-134a Gas Charge in Thermostatic Element Fig. 14 Pressure-Temperature Relationship of R-134a Gas Charge in Thermostatic Element Fig. 14 Pressure/Temperature Relationship of R-134a Gas Charge in Thermostatic Element Fig. 14 Pressure/Temperature Relationship of R-134a Gas Charge in Thermostatic Element Type of Equalization Type of Equalization |
| 150 | Fig. 15 Typical Superheat Characteristics of Common Thermostatic Charges Fig. 15 Typical Superheat Characteristics of Common Thermostatic Charges Fig. 15 Typical Superheat Characteristics of Common Thermostatic Charges Fig. 15 Typical Superheat Characteristics of Common Thermostatic Charges Fig. 16 Bulb Location for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 16 Bulb Location for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 16 Bulb Location for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 16 Bulb Location for Thermostatic Expansion Valve Fig. 17 Pilot-Operated Thermostatic Expansion Valve Controlling Liquid Refrigerant Flow to Direct-Expansion Chiller Fig. 17 Pilot-Operated Thermostatic Expansion Valve Controlling Liquid Refrigerant Flow to Direct-Expansion Chiller Fig. 17 Pilot-Operated Thermostatic Expansion Valve Controlling Liquid Refrigerant Flow to Direct-Expansion Chiller Fig. 17 Pilot-Operated Thermostatic Expansion Valve Controlling Liquid Refrigerant Flow to Direct-Expansion Chiller Alternative Construction Types Alternative Construction Types |
| 151 | Application Application Fig. 18 Bulb Location When Suction Main is Above Evaporator Fig. 18 Bulb Location When Suction Main is Above Evaporator Fig. 18 Bulb Location When Suction Main is Above Evaporator Fig. 18 Bulb Location When Suction Main is Above Evaporator |
| 152 | Fig. 19 Typical Block Valve Fig. 19 Typical Block Valve Fig. 19 Typical Block Valve Fig. 19 Typical Block Valve Electric Expansion Valves Electric Expansion Valves Fig. 20 Fluid-Filled Heat-Motor Valve Fig. 20 Fluid-Filled Heat-Motor Valve Fig. 20 Fluid-Filled Heat-Motor Valve Fig. 20 Fluid-Filled Heat-Motor Valve |
| 153 | Fig. 21 Magnetically Modulated Valve Fig. 21 Magnetically Modulated Valve Fig. 21 Magnetically Modulated Valve Fig. 21 Magnetically Modulated Valve Fig. 22 Pulse-Width Modulated Valve Fig. 22 Pulse-Width Modulated Valve Fig. 22 Pulse-Width-Modulated Valve Fig. 22 Pulse-Width-Modulated Valve Fig. 23 Step Motor with (A) Lead Screw and (B) Stem Seal Fig. 23 Step Motor with (A) Lead Screw and (B) Stem Seal Fig. 23 Step Motor with (A) Lead Screw and (B) Gear Drive with Stem Seal Fig. 23 Step Motor with (A) Lead Screw and (B) Gear Drive with Stem Seal Regulating and Throttling Valves Regulating and Throttling Valves Fig. 24 Electronically Controlled, Electrically Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator Fig. 24 Electronically Controlled, Electrically Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator Fig. 24 Electronically Controlled, Electrically Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator Fig. 24 Electronically Controlled, Electrically Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator |
| 154 | Evaporator-Pressure-Regulating Valves Evaporator-Pressure-Regulating Valves Operation Operation Fig. 25 Direct-Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator Fig. 25 Direct-Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator Fig. 25 Direct-Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator Fig. 25 Direct-Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator Fig. 26 Pilot-Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator (Self- Powered) Fig. 26 Pilot-Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator (Self- Powered) Fig. 26 Pilot-Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator (Self- Powered) Fig. 26 Pilot-Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator (Self- Powered) |
| 155 | Fig. 27 Fluid-Filled Heat-Motor Valve Fig. 27 Fluid-Filled Heat-Motor Valve Fig. 27 Pilot-Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator (High-Pressure-Driven) Fig. 27 Pilot-Operated Evaporator-Pressure Regulator (High-Pressure-Driven) Selection Selection Application Application Fig. 28 Evaporator-Pressure Regulators in Multiple System Fig. 28 Evaporator-Pressure Regulators in Multiple System Fig. 28 Evaporator-Pressure Regulators in Multiple System Fig. 28 Evaporator-Pressure Regulators in Multiple System |
| 156 | Constant-Pressure Expansion Valves Constant-Pressure Expansion Valves Operation Operation Fig. 29 Constant-Pressure Expansion Valve Fig. 29 Constant-Pressure Expansion Valve Fig. 29 Constant-Pressure Expansion Valve Fig. 29 Constant-Pressure Expansion Valve Selection Selection Application Application Suction-Pressure-Regulating Valves Suction-Pressure-Regulating Valves Operation Operation |
| 157 | Fig. 30 Direct-Acting Suction-Pressure Regulator Fig. 30 Direct-Acting Suction-Pressure Regulator Fig. 30 Direct-Acting Suction-Pressure Regulator Fig. 30 Direct-Acting Suction-Pressure Regulator Selection Selection Application Application Condenser-Pressure- Regulating Valves Condenser-Pressure- Regulating Valves Operation Operation Fig. 31 Condenser Pressure Regulation (Two-Valve Arrangement) Fig. 31 Condenser Pressure Regulation (Two-Valve Arrangement) Fig. 31 Condenser Pressure Regulation (Two-Valve Arrangement) Fig. 31 Condenser Pressure Regulation (Two-Valve Arrangement) |
| 158 | Application Application Fig. 32 Three-Way Condenser-Pressure-Regulating Valve Fig. 32 Three-Way Condenser-Pressure-Regulating Valve Discharge Bypass Valves Discharge Bypass Valves Operation Operation Selection Selection Application Application |
| 159 | High-Side Float Valves High-Side Float Valves Operation Operation Selection Selection Application Application Fig. 33 High-Side Float Valve Fig. 33 High-Side Float Valve Fig. 33 High-Side Float Valve Fig. 33 High-Side Float Valve Low-Side Float Valves Low-Side Float Valves Operation Operation Selection Selection Application Application Fig. 34 Low-Side Float Valve Fig. 34 Low-Side Float Valve Fig. 34 Low-Side Float Valve Fig. 34 Low-Side Float Valve Solenoid Valves Solenoid Valves |
| 160 | Fig. 35 Normally Closed Direct-Acting Solenoid Valve with Hammer-Blow Feature Fig. 35 Normally Closed Direct-Acting Solenoid Valve with Hammer-Blow Feature Fig. 35 Normally Closed Direct-Acting Solenoid Valve with Hammer-Blow Feature Fig. 35 Normally Closed Direct-Acting Solenoid Valve with Hammer-Blow Feature Fig. 36 Normally Closed Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve with Direct-Lift Feature Fig. 36 Normally Closed Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve with Direct-Lift Feature Fig. 36 Normally Closed Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve with Direct-Lift Feature Fig. 36 Normally Closed Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve with Direct-Lift Feature Operation Operation |
| 161 | Fig. 37 Normally Closed Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve with Hammer-Blow and Mechanically Linked Piston-Pin Plunger Fig. 37 Normally Closed Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve with Hammer-Blow and Mechanically Linked Piston-Pin Plunger Fig. 37 Normally Closed Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve with Hammer-Blow and Mechanically Linked Piston-Pin Plunger Fig. 37 Normally Closed Pilot-Operated Solenoid Valve with Hammer-Blow and Mechanically Linked Piston-Pin Plunger Fig. 38 Four-Way Refrigerant-Reversing Valve Used in Heat Pumps (Shown in Cooling Mode) Fig. 38 Four-Way Refrigerant-Reversing Valve Used in Heat Pumps (Shown in Cooling Mode) Fig. 38 Four-Way Refrigerant-Reversing Valve Used in Heat Pumps (Shown in Cooling Mode) Fig. 38 Four-Way Refrigerant-Reversing Valve Used in Heat Pumps (Shown in Cooling Mode) Fig. 39 Four-Way Refrigerant-Reversing Valve (Shown in Heating Mode) Fig. 39 Four-Way Refrigerant-Reversing Valve (Shown in Heating Mode) |
| 162 | Application Application Condensing Water Regulators Condensing Water Regulators Two-Way Regulators Two-Way Regulators |
| 163 | Fig. 40 Two-Way Condensing Water Regulator Fig. 40 Two-Way Condensing Water Regulator Fig. 40 Two-Way Condensing Water Regulator Fig. 40 Two-Way Condensing Water Regulator Three-Way Regulators Three-Way Regulators Fig. 41 Three-Way Condensing Water Regulator Fig. 41 Three-Way Condensing Water Regulator Fig. 41 Three-Way Condensing Water Regulator Fig. 41 Three-Way Condensing Water Regulator Check Valves Check Valves Seat Materials Seat Materials Applications Applications |
| 164 | Relief Devices Relief Devices Safety Relief Valves Safety Relief Valves Fig. 42 Pop-Type Safety Relief Valves Fig. 42 Pop-Type Safety Relief Valves Fig. 42 Pop-Type Safety Relief Valves Fig. 42 Pop-Type Safety Relief Valves Functional Relief Valves Functional Relief Valves |
| 165 | Fig. 43 Diaphragm Relief Valve Fig. 43 Diaphragm Relief Valve Fig. 43 Diaphragm Relief Valve Fig. 43 Diaphragm Relief Valve Fig. 44 Safety Relief Devices Fig. 44 Safety Relief Devices Fig. 44 Safety Relief Devices Fig. 44 Safety Relief Devices Other Safety Relief Devices Other Safety Relief Devices Table 2 Values of f for Discharge Capacity of Pressure Relief Devices Table 2 Values of f for Discharge Capacity of Pressure Relief Devices Discharge-Line Lubricant Separators Discharge-Line Lubricant Separators Selection Selection |
| 166 | Fig. 45 Discharge-Line Lubricant Separator Fig. 45 Discharge-Line Lubricant Separator Fig. 45 Discharge-Line Lubricant Separator Fig. 45 Discharge-Line Lubricant Separator Application Application Capillary Tubes Capillary Tubes Theory Theory Fig. 46 Pressure and Temperature Distribution along Typical Capillary Tube Fig. 46 Pressure and Temperature Distribution along Typical Capillary Tube Fig. 46 Pressure and Temperature Distribution along Typical Capillary Tube Fig. 46 Pressure and Temperature Distribution along Typical Capillary Tube |
| 167 | System Design Factors System Design Factors Capacity Balance Characteristic Capacity Balance Characteristic Fig. 47 Effect of Capillary Tube Selection on Refrigerant Distribution Fig. 47 Effect of Capillary Tube Selection on Refrigerant Distribution Fig. 47 Effect of Capillary Tube Selection on Refrigerant Distribution Fig. 47 Effect of Capillary Tube Selection on Refrigerant Distribution Fig. 48 Capacity Balance Characteristic of Capillary System Fig. 48 Capacity Balance Characteristic of Capillary System Fig. 48 Capacity Balance Characteristic of Capillary System Fig. 48 Capacity Balance Characteristic of Capillary System |
| 168 | Optimum Selection and Refrigerant Charge Optimum Selection and Refrigerant Charge Fig. 49 Test Setup for Determining Capacity Balance Characteristic of Compressor, Capillary, and Heat Exchanger Fig. 49 Test Setup for Determining Capacity Balance Characteristic of Compressor, Capillary, and Heat Exchanger Fig. 49 Test Setup for Determining Capacity Balance Characteristic of Compressor, Capillary, and Heat Exchanger Fig. 49 Test Setup for Determining Capacity Balance Characteristic of Compressor, Capillary, and Heat Exchanger Application Application Adiabatic Capillary Tube Selection Procedure Adiabatic Capillary Tube Selection Procedure |
| 169 | Fig. 50 Mass Flow Rate of R-134a Through Capillary Tube Fig. 50 Mass Flow Rate of R-134a Through Capillary Tube Fig. 50 Mass Flow Rate of R-134a Through Capillary Tube Fig. 50 Mass Flow Rate of R-134a Through Capillary Tube Fig. 51 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-134a Fig. 51 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-134a Fig. 51 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-134a Fig. 51 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-134a Fig. 52 Mass Flow Rate of R- 410A Through Capillary Tube Fig. 52 Mass Flow Rate of R- 410A Through Capillary Tube Fig. 52 Mass Flow Rate of R- 410A Through Capillary Tube Fig. 52 Mass Flow Rate of R- 410A Through Capillary Tube Fig. 53 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R- 410A for Subcooled Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 53 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R- 410A for Subcooled Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 53 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R- 410A for Subcooled Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 53 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R- 410A for Subcooled Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 54 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R- 410A for Two- Phase Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 54 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R- 410A for Two- Phase Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 54 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R- 410A for Two- Phase Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 54 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R- 410A for Two- Phase Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet |
| 170 | Table 3 Capillary Tube Dimensionless Parameters Table 3 Capillary Tube Dimensionless Parameters Sample Calculations Sample Calculations Fig. 55 Mass Flow Rate of R-22 Through Capillary Tube Fig. 55 Mass Flow Rate of R-22 Through Capillary Tube Fig. 55 Mass Flow Rate of R-22 Through Capillary Tube Fig. 55 Mass Flow Rate of R-22 Through Capillary Tube Fig. 56 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-22 for Subcooled Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 56 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-22 for Subcooled Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 56 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-22 for Subcooled Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 56 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-22 for Subcooled Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 57 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-22 for Two-Phase Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 57 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-22 for Two-Phase Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 57 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-22 for Two-Phase Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet Fig. 57 Flow Rate Correction Factor f for R-22 for Two-Phase Condition at Capillary Tube Inlet |
| 171 | Capillary-Tube/Suction-Line Heat Exchanger Selection Procedure Capillary-Tube/Suction-Line Heat Exchanger Selection Procedure Capillary Tube Selection Capillary Tube Selection Fig. 58 Inlet Condition Rating Chart for R-134a Fig. 58 Inlet Condition Rating Chart for R-134a Fig. 58 Inlet Condition Rating Chart for R-134a Fig. 58 Inlet Condition Rating Chart for R-134a Fig. 59 Capillary Tube Geometry Correction Factor for Subcooled R134a Inlet Conditions Fig. 59 Capillary Tube Geometry Correction Factor for Subcooled R134a Inlet Conditions Fig. 59 Capillary Tube Geometry Correction Factor for Subcooled R-134a Inlet Conditions Fig. 59 Capillary Tube Geometry Correction Factor for Subcooled R-134a Inlet Conditions Fig. 60 Suction-Line Condition Correction Factor for R-134a Subcooled Inlet Conditions Fig. 60 Suction-Line Condition Correction Factor for R-134a Subcooled Inlet Conditions Fig. 60 Suction-Line Condition Correction Factor for R-134a Subcooled Inlet Conditions Fig. 60 Suction-Line Condition Correction Factor for R-134a Subcooled Inlet Conditions Generalized Prediction Equations Generalized Prediction Equations |
| 172 | Fig. 61 Heat Exchange Length Correction Factor for R-134a Subcooled Inlet Conditions Fig. 61 Heat Exchange Length Correction Factor for R-134a Subcooled Inlet Conditions Fig. 61 Heat Exchange Length Correction Factor for R-134a Subcooled Inlet Conditions Fig. 61 Heat Exchange Length Correction Factor for R-134a Subcooled Inlet Conditions Fig. 62 Capillary Tube Geometry Correction Factor for R134a Quality Inlet Conditions Fig. 62 Capillary Tube Geometry Correction Factor for R134a Quality Inlet Conditions Fig. 62 Capillary Tube Geometry Correction Factor for R-134a Quality Inlet Conditions Fig. 62 Capillary Tube Geometry Correction Factor for R-134a Quality Inlet Conditions Fig. 63 Suction-Line Condition Correction Factor for R-134a Quality Inlet Conditions Fig. 63 Suction-Line Condition Correction Factor for R-134a Quality Inlet Conditions Fig. 63 Suction-Line Condition Correction Factor for R-134a Quality Inlet Conditions Fig. 63 Suction-Line Condition Correction Factor for R-134a Quality Inlet Conditions Table 4 Capillary-Tube/Suction-Line Heat Exchanger Dimensionless Parameters Table 4 Capillary-Tube/Suction-Line Heat Exchanger Dimensionless Parameters |
| 173 | Sample Calculations Sample Calculations Short-Tube Restrictors Short-Tube Restrictors Application Application Fig. 64 Schematic of Movable Short-Tube Restrictor Fig. 64 Schematic of Movable Short-Tube Restrictor Fig. 64 Schematic of Movable Short-Tube Restrictor Fig. 64 Schematic of Movable Short-Tube Restrictor Fig. 65 R-22 Pressure Profile at Various Downstream Pressures with Constant Upstream Conditions: L = 0.5 in., D = 0.053 in., Subcooling 25°F Fig. 65 R-22 Pressure Profile at Various Downstream Pressures with Constant Upstream Conditions: L = 0.5 in., D = 0.053 in., Subcooling 25°F Fig. 65 R-22 Pressure Profile at Various Downstream Pressures with Constant Upstream Conditions: L = 0.5 in., D = 0.053 in., Subcooling 25°F Fig. 65 R-22 Pressure Profile at Various Downstream Pressures with Constant Upstream Conditions: L = 0.5 in., D = 0.053 in., Subcooling 25°F |
| 174 | Fig. 66 R-22 Mass Flow Rate Versus Condenser Pressure for Reference Short Tube: L = 0.5 in., D = 0.053 in., Sharp-Edged Fig. 66 R-22 Mass Flow Rate Versus Condenser Pressure for Reference Short Tube: L = 0.5 in., D = 0.053 in., Sharp-Edged Fig. 66 R-22 Mass Flow Rate Versus Condenser Pressure for Reference Short Tube: L = 0.5 in., D = 0.053 in., Sharp-Edged Fig. 66 R-22 Mass Flow Rate Versus Condenser Pressure for Reference Short Tube: L = 0.5 in., D = 0.053 in., Sharp-Edged Selection Selection Fig. 67 R-22 Mass Flow Rate Versus Condenser Pressure for Reference Short Tube: L = 0.5 in., D = 0.053 in., Sharp-Edged Fig. 67 R-22 Mass Flow Rate Versus Condenser Pressure for Reference Short Tube: L = 0.5 in., D = 0.053 in., Sharp-Edged Fig. 67 Correction Factor for Short-Tube Geometry (R-22) Fig. 67 Correction Factor for Short-Tube Geometry (R-22) |
| 175 | Fig. 68 Correction Factor for L/D Versus Subcooling (R-22) Fig. 68 Correction Factor for L/D Versus Subcooling (R-22) Fig. 68 Correction Factor for L/D Versus Subcooling (R-22) Fig. 68 Correction Factor for L/D Versus Subcooling (R-22) Fig. 69 Correction Factor for Short-Tube Geometry (R-22) Fig. 69 Correction Factor for Short-Tube Geometry (R-22) Fig. 69 Correction Factor for Inlet Chamfering (R-22) Fig. 69 Correction Factor for Inlet Chamfering (R-22) References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 177 | I-P_R10_Ch12 I-P_R10_Ch12 Tests for Boundary and Mixed Lubrication Tests for Boundary and Mixed Lubrication |
| 178 | Refrigeration Lubricant Requirements Refrigeration Lubricant Requirements |
| 179 | Mineral Oil Composition and Component Characteristics Mineral Oil Composition and Component Characteristics Component Characteristics Component Characteristics Synthetic Lubricants Synthetic Lubricants |
| 180 | Table 1 Typical Properties of Refrigerant Lubricants Table 1 Typical Properties of Refrigerant Lubricants Lubricant Additives Lubricant Additives |
| 181 | Lubricant Properties Lubricant Properties Viscosity and Viscosity Grades Viscosity and Viscosity Grades Table 2 Viscosity System for Industrial Fluid Lubricants (ASTM D2422) Table 2 Viscosity System for Industrial Fluid Lubricants (ASTM D2422) Viscosity Index Viscosity Index |
| 182 | Table 3 Recommended Viscosity Ranges Table 3 Recommended Viscosity Ranges Pressure/Viscosity Coefficient and Compressibility Factor Pressure/Viscosity Coefficient and Compressibility Factor Fig. 1 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for ISO 108 HVI and LVI Lubricants Fig. 1 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for ISO 108 HVI and LVI Lubricants Fig. 1 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for ISO 108 HVI and LVI Lubricants Fig. 1 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for ISO 108 HVI and LVI Lubricants |
| 183 | Density Density Fig. 2 Variation of Refrigeration Lubricant Density with Temperature Fig. 2 Variation of Refrigeration Lubricant Density with Temperature Fig. 2 Variation of Refrigeration Lubricant Density with Temperature Fig. 2 Variation of Refrigeration Lubricant Density with Temperature Relative Molecular Mass Relative Molecular Mass Pour Point Pour Point Volatility: Flash and Fire Points Volatility: Flash and Fire Points |
| 184 | Table 4 Increase in Vapor Pressure and Temperature Table 4 Increase in Vapor Pressure and Temperature Vapor Pressure Vapor Pressure Aniline Point Aniline Point Table 5 Absorption of Low-Solubility Refrigerant Gases in Oil Table 5 Absorption of Low-Solubility Refrigerant Gases in Oil Solubility of Refrigerants in Oils Solubility of Refrigerants in Oils Lubricant/Refrigerant Solutions Lubricant/Refrigerant Solutions |
| 185 | Density Density Fig. 3 Density Correction Factors Fig. 3 Density Correction Factors Fig. 3 Density Correction Factors Fig. 3 Density Correction Factors |
| 186 | Fig. 4 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 4 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 4 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 32 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 4 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 32 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 5 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 100 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 5 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 100 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 5 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 100 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 5 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 100 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Thermodynamics and Transport Phenomena Thermodynamics and Transport Phenomena Fig. 6 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 32 Polypropylene Glycol Butyl Ether Lubricant Fig. 6 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 32 Polypropylene Glycol Butyl Ether Lubricant Fig. 6 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 32 Polyalkylene Glycol Butyl Ether Lubricant Fig. 6 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 32 Polyalkylene Glycol Butyl Ether Lubricant Fig. 7 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 80 Polyoxypropylene Glycol Diol Lubricant Fig. 7 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 80 Polyoxypropylene Glycol Diol Lubricant Fig. 7 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 80 Polyalkylene Glycol Diol Lubricant Fig. 7 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-134a and ISO 80 Polyalkylene Glycol Diol Lubricant Fig. 8 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 8 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 8 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 8 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Pressure/Temperature/Solubility Relations Pressure/Temperature/Solubility Relations |
| 187 | Fig. 9 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 9 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 9 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 9 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 10 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 10 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 10 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Mixed- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 10 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Mixed- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 11 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 11 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 11 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 11 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 12 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 12 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 12 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 12 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 13 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 13 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 13 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 13 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched- Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 14 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy-Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 14 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy-Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 14 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy- Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 14 Density as Function of Temperature and Pressure for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy- Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant |
| 188 | Fig. 15 P-T-S Diagram for Completely Miscible Refrigerant/ Lubricant Solutions Fig. 15 P-T-S Diagram for Completely Miscible Refrigerant/ Lubricant Solutions Fig. 15 P-T-S Diagram for Completely Miscible Refrigerant/Lubricant Solutions Fig. 15 P-T-S Diagram for Completely Miscible Refrigerant/Lubricant Solutions Mutual Solubility Mutual Solubility Table 6 Mutual Solubility of Refrigerants and Mineral Oil Table 6 Mutual Solubility of Refrigerants and Mineral Oil Fig. 16 P-T-S Diagram for Partially Miscible Refrigerant/Oil Solutions Fig. 16 P-T-S Diagram for Partially Miscible Refrigerant/Oil Solutions Fig. 16 P-T-S Diagram for Partially Miscible Refrigerant/ Oil Solutions Fig. 16 P-T-S Diagram for Partially Miscible Refrigerant/ Oil Solutions |
| 189 | Effects of Partial Miscibility in Refrigerant Systems Effects of Partial Miscibility in Refrigerant Systems Solubility Curves and Miscibility Diagrams Solubility Curves and Miscibility Diagrams Fig. 17 P-T-S Relations of R-22 with ISO 43 White Oil (0% CA, 55% CN, 45% CP) Fig. 17 P-T-S Relations of R-22 with ISO 43 White Oil (0% CA, 55% CN, 45% CP) Fig. 17 P-T-S Relations of R-22 with ISO 43 White Oil (0% CA, 55% CN, 45% CP) Fig. 17 P-T-S Relations of R-22 with ISO 43 White Oil (0% CA, 55% CN, 45% CP) Effect of Lubricant Type on Solubility and Miscibility Effect of Lubricant Type on Solubility and Miscibility |
| 190 | Fig. 18 Critical Solubilities of Refrigerants with ISO 32 Naphthenic Lubricant (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) Fig. 18 Critical Solubilities of Refrigerants with ISO 32 Naphthenic Lubricant (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) Fig. 18 Critical Solubilities of Refrigerants with ISO 32 Naphthenic Lubricant (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) Fig. 18 Critical Solubilities of Refrigerants with ISO 32 Naphthenic Lubricant (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) Fig. 19 Critical Solubilities of Refrigerants with ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Lubricant Fig. 19 Critical Solubilities of Refrigerants with ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Lubricant Fig. 19 Critical Solubilities of Refrigerants with ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Lubricant Fig. 19 Critical Solubilities of Refrigerants with ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Lubricant Effect of Refrigerant Type on Miscibility with Lubricants Effect of Refrigerant Type on Miscibility with Lubricants Solubilities and Viscosities of Lubricant/Refrigerant Solutions Solubilities and Viscosities of Lubricant/Refrigerant Solutions |
| 191 | Table 7 Critical Miscibility Values of R-22 with Different Oils Table 7 Critical Miscibility Values of R-22 with Different Oils Table 8 Critical Solution Temperatures for Selected Refrigerant/Lubricant Pairs Table 8 Critical Solution Temperatures for Selected Refrigerant/Lubricant Pairs Lubricant Influence on Oil Return Lubricant Influence on Oil Return |
| 192 | Fig. 20 Effect of Oil Properties on Miscibility with R-22 Fig. 20 Effect of Oil Properties on Miscibility with R-22 Fig. 20 Effect of Oil Properties on Miscibility with R-22 Fig. 20 Effect of Oil Properties on Miscibility with R-22 Fig. 21 Viscosity of Mixtures of Various Refrigerants and ISO 32 Paraffinic Oil Fig. 21 Viscosity of Mixtures of Various Refrigerants and ISO 32 Paraffinic Oil Fig. 21 Viscosity of Mixtures of Various Refrigerants and ISO 32 Paraffinic Oil Fig. 21 Viscosity of Mixtures of Various Refrigerants and ISO 32 Paraffinic Oil Fig. 22 Solubility of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil Fig. 22 Solubility of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil Fig. 22 Solubility of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil Fig. 22 Solubility of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil |
| 193 | Fig. 23 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic and Paraffinic Base Oils Fig. 23 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic and Paraffinic Base Oils Fig. 23 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic and Paraffinic Base Oils Fig. 23 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic and Paraffinic Base Oils Fig. 24 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in 65 Naphthene and Paraffin Base Oils Fig. 24 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in 65 Naphthene and Paraffin Base Oils Fig. 24 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 65 Naphthene and Paraffin Base Oils Fig. 24 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 65 Naphthene and Paraffin Base Oils Fig. 25 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil Fig. 25 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil Fig. 25 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil Fig. 25 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil Lubricant Influence on System Performance Lubricant Influence on System Performance |
| 194 | Fig. 26 Viscosity of Mixtures of ISO 65 Paraffinic Base Oil and R-22 Fig. 26 Viscosity of Mixtures of ISO 65 Paraffinic Base Oil and R-22 Fig. 26 Viscosity of Mixtures of ISO 65 Paraffinic Base Oil and R-22 Fig. 26 Viscosity of Mixtures of ISO 65 Paraffinic Base Oil and R-22 Fig. 27 Solubility of R-502 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) Fig. 27 Solubility of R-502 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) Fig. 27 Solubility of R-502 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) Fig. 27 Solubility of R-502 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) Fig. 28 Viscosity/Temperature Curves for Solutions of R-11 in ISO 65 Naphthenic Base Oil Fig. 28 Viscosity/Temperature Curves for Solutions of R-11 in ISO 65 Naphthenic Base Oil Fig. 28 Viscosity/Temperature Curves for Solutions of R-11 in ISO 65 Naphthenic Base Oil Fig. 28 Viscosity/Temperature Curves for Solutions of R-11 in ISO 65 Naphthenic Base Oil Fig. 29 Solubility of R-11 in ISO 65 Oil Fig. 29 Solubility of R-11 in ISO 65 Oil Fig. 29 Solubility of R-11 in ISO 65 Oil Fig. 29 Solubility of R-11 in ISO 65 Oil |
| 195 | Fig. 30 Solubility of R-12 in Refrigerant Oils Fig. 30 Solubility of R-12 in Refrigerant Oils Fig. 30 Solubility of R-12 in Refrigerant Oils Fig. 30 Solubility of R-12 in Refrigerant Oils Fig. 31 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-12 in Naphthenic Base Oil Fig. 31 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-12 in Naphthenic Base Oil Fig. 31 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-12 in Naphthenic Base Oil Fig. 31 Viscosity/Temperature Chart for Solutions of R-12 in Naphthenic Base Oil Fig. 32 Critical Solution Temperatures of R-114/Oil Mixtures Fig. 32 Critical Solution Temperatures of R-114/Oil Mixtures Fig. 32 Critical Solution Temperatures of R-114/ Oil Mixtures Fig. 32 Critical Solution Temperatures of R-114/ Oil Mixtures Fig. 33 Solubility of R-114 in HVI Oils Fig. 33 Solubility of R-114 in HVI Oils Fig. 33 Solubility of R-114 in HVI Oils Fig. 33 Solubility of R-114 in HVI Oils |
| 196 | Fig. 34 Solubility of Refrigerants in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 34 Solubility of Refrigerants in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 34 Solubility of Refrigerants in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 34 Solubility of Refrigerants in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 35 Viscosity of R-12/Oil Solutions at Low-Side Conditions Fig. 35 Viscosity of R-12/Oil Solutions at Low-Side Conditions Fig. 35 Viscosity of R-12/Oil Solutions at Low-Side Conditions Fig. 35 Viscosity of R-12/Oil Solutions at Low-Side Conditions Fig. 36 Viscosity of R-22/Naphthenic Oil Solutions at Low- Side Conditions Fig. 36 Viscosity of R-22/Naphthenic Oil Solutions at Low- Side Conditions Fig. 36 Viscosity of R-22/Naphthenic Oil Solutions at Low-Side Conditions Fig. 36 Viscosity of R-22/Naphthenic Oil Solutions at Low-Side Conditions Fig. 37 Viscosity of R-502/Naphthenic Oil Solutions at Low- Side Conditions Fig. 37 Viscosity of R-502/Naphthenic Oil Solutions at Low- Side Conditions Fig. 37 Viscosity of R-502/Naphthenic Oil Solutions at Low-Side Conditions Fig. 37 Viscosity of R-502/Naphthenic Oil Solutions at Low-Side Conditions |
| 197 | Fig. 38 Viscosities of Solutions of R-502 with ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) and Synthetic Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 38 Viscosities of Solutions of R-502 with ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) and Synthetic Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 38 Viscosities of Solutions of R-502 with ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) and Synthetic Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 38 Viscosities of Solutions of R-502 with ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil (CA 12%, CN 44%, CP 44%) and Synthetic Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 39 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-502 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil Fig. 39 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-502 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil Fig. 39 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-502 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil Fig. 39 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-502 in ISO 32 Naphthenic Oil Fig. 40 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 40 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 40 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 40 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-22 in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Wax Separation (Floc Tests) Wax Separation (Floc Tests) |
| 198 | Fig. 41 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-502 in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 41 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-502 in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 41 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-502 in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 41 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Solutions of R-502 in ISO 32 Alkylbenzene Oil Fig. 42 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 32 Polypropylene Glycol Butyl Mono Ether with R-134a Fig. 42 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 32 Polypropylene Glycol Butyl Mono Ether with R-134a Fig. 42 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 32 Polypropylene Glycol Butyl Mono Ether with R-134a Fig. 42 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 32 Polypropylene Glycol Butyl Mono Ether with R-134a Fig. 43 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 80 Polyoxypropylene Diol with R-134a Fig. 43 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 80 Polyoxypropylene Diol with R-134a Fig. 43 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 80 Polyoxypropylene Diol with R-134a Fig. 43 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 80 Polyoxypropylene Diol with R-134a Fig. 44 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester with R-134a Fig. 44 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester with R-134a Fig. 44 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester with R-134a Fig. 44 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester with R-134a Solubility of Hydrocarbon Gases Solubility of Hydrocarbon Gases |
| 199 | Fig. 45 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 100 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester with R-134a Fig. 45 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 100 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester with R-134a Fig. 45 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 100 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester with R-134a Fig. 45 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for ISO 100 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester with R-134a Fig. 46 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 410A and ISO 32 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 46 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 410A and ISO 32 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 46 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 46 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 47 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 47 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 47 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 47 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 48 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 410A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 48 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 410A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 48 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 48 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 49 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 49 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 49 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 49 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 50 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 VG Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 50 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 VG Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 50 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 50 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Lubricants for Carbon Dioxide Lubricants for Carbon Dioxide |
| 200 | Fig. 51 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 51 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 51 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 51 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Mixed-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 52 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 VG Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 52 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 VG Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 52 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 52 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 53 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 53 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 53 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 53 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-410A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 54 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 507A and ISO 32 VG Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 54 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 507A and ISO 32 VG Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 54 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 54 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 55 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 507A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 55 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 507A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 55 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 55 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant |
| 201 | Fig. 56 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy- Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 56 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R- 507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy- Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 56 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy-Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 56 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Plot for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy-Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 57 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 57 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 57 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 57 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 32 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 58 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 58 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 58 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 58 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Branched-Acid Polyol Ester Lubricant Fig. 59 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy-Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 59 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy-Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 59 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy-Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 59 Viscosity as Function of Temperature and Pressure at Constant Concentrations for Mixture of R-507A and ISO 68 Tetrahydrofural Alcohol-Initiated, Methoxy-Terminated, Propylene Oxide Polyether Lubricant Fig. 60 Solubility of Propane in Oil Fig. 60 Solubility of Propane in Oil Fig. 60 Solubility of Propane in Oil Fig. 60 Solubility of Propane in Oil |
| 202 | Fig. 61 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Propane and ISO 32 Mineral Oil Fig. 61 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Propane and ISO 32 Mineral Oil Fig. 61 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Propane and ISO 32 Mineral Oil Fig. 61 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for Propane and ISO 32 Mineral Oil Fig. 62 Miscibility Limits of ISO 220 Lubricants with Carbon Dioxide Fig. 62 Miscibility Limits of ISO 220 Lubricants with Carbon Dioxide Fig. 62 Miscibility Limits of ISO 220 Lubricants with Carbon Dioxide Fig. 62 Miscibility Limits of ISO 220 Lubricants with Carbon Dioxide Fig. 63 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for CO2 and ISO 55 Polyol Ester Fig. 63 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for CO2 and ISO 55 Polyol Ester Fig. 63 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for CO2 and ISO 55 Polyol Ester Fig. 63 Viscosity/Temperature/Pressure Chart for CO2 and ISO 55 Polyol Ester Fig. 64 Density Chart for CO2 and ISO 55 Polyol Ester Fig. 64 Density Chart for CO2 and ISO 55 Polyol Ester Solubility of Water in Lubricants Solubility of Water in Lubricants |
| 203 | Fig. 65 Solubility of Ethylene in Oil Fig. 65 Solubility of Ethylene in Oil Fig. 65 Solubility of Ethylene in Oil Fig. 65 Solubility of Ethylene in Oil Fig. 66 Fig. 66 Solubility of Water in Mineral Oil Fig. 66 Fig. 66 Solubility of Water in Mineral Oil Fig. 66 Solubility of Water in Mineral Oil Fig. 66 Solubility of Water in Mineral Oil Solubility of Air in Lubricants Solubility of Air in Lubricants Foaming and Antifoam Agents Foaming and Antifoam Agents |
| 204 | Oxidation Resistance Oxidation Resistance Chemical Stability Chemical Stability Effect of Refrigerants and Lubricant Types Effect of Refrigerants and Lubricant Types Conversion from CFC Refrigerants to Other Refrigerants Conversion from CFC Refrigerants to Other Refrigerants Choice of Refrigerant Lubricants Choice of Refrigerant Lubricants Flushing Flushing |
| 205 | References References |
| 209 | I-P_R10_Ch13 I-P_R10_Ch13 Coolant Selection Coolant Selection Load Versus Flow Rate Load Versus Flow Rate Pumping Cost Pumping Cost Performance Comparisons Performance Comparisons |
| 210 | Table 1 Secondary Coolant Performance Comparisons Table 1 Secondary Coolant Performance Comparisons Table 2 Comparative Ranking of Heat Transfer Factors at 7 fps* Table 2 Comparative Ranking of Heat Transfer Factors at 7 fps* Table 3 Relative Pumping Energy Required* Table 3 Relative Pumping Energy Required* Other Considerations Other Considerations Design Considerations Design Considerations Piping and Control Valves Piping and Control Valves Storage Tanks Storage Tanks |
| 211 | Fig. 1 Load Profile of Refrigeration Plant Where Secondary Coolant Storage Can Save Energy Fig. 1 Load Profile of Refrigeration Plant Where Secondary Coolant Storage Can Save Energy Fig. 1 Load Profile of Refrigeration Plant Where Secondary Coolant Storage Can Save Energy Fig. 1 Load Profile of Refrigeration Plant Where Secondary Coolant Storage Can Save Energy Fig. 2 Arrangement of System with Secondary Coolant Storage Fig. 2 Arrangement of System with Secondary Coolant Storage Fig. 2 Arrangement of System with Secondary Coolant Storage Fig. 2 Arrangement of System with Secondary Coolant Storage Expansion Tanks Expansion Tanks |
| 212 | Fig. 3 Typical Closed Salt Brine System Fig. 3 Typical Closed Salt Brine System Fig. 3 Typical Closed Salt Brine System Fig. 3 Typical Closed Salt Brine System Fig. 4 Brine Strengthening Unit for Salt Brines Used as Secondary Coolants Fig. 4 Brine Strengthening Unit for Salt Brines Used as Secondary Coolants Fig. 4 Brine Strengthening Unit for Salt Brines Used as Secondary Coolants Fig. 4 Brine Strengthening Unit for Salt Brines Used as Secondary Coolants Pulldown Time Pulldown Time |
| 213 | System Costs System Costs Corrosion Prevention Corrosion Prevention Applications Applications |
| 214 | References References |
| 215 | I-P_R10_Ch14 I-P_R10_Ch14 Fig. 1 Sloped-Front Unit Cooler for Reach-In Cabinets Fig. 1 Sloped-Front Unit Cooler for Reach-In Cabinets Fig. 1 Sloped-Front Unit Cooler for Reach-In Cabinets Fig. 1 Sloped-Front Unit Cooler for Reach-In Cabinets Types of Forced-Circulation Air Coolers Types of Forced-Circulation Air Coolers Fig. 2 Low-Air-Velocity Unit Fig. 2 Low-Air-Velocity Unit Fig. 2 Low-Air-Velocity Unit Fig. 2 Low-Air-Velocity Unit |
| 216 | Fig. 3 Low-Profile Cooler Fig. 3 Low-Profile Cooler Fig. 3 Low-Profile Cooler Fig. 3 Low-Profile Cooler Fig. 4 Liquid Overfeed Type Unit Cooler Fig. 4 Liquid Overfeed Type Unit Cooler Fig. 4 Liquid Overfeed Unit Cooler Fig. 4 Liquid Overfeed Unit Cooler Components Components Draw-Through and Blow-Through Airflow Draw-Through and Blow-Through Airflow Fan Assemblies Fan Assemblies |
| 217 | Casing Casing Coil Construction Coil Construction Frost Control Frost Control Operational Controls Operational Controls Air Movement and Distribution Air Movement and Distribution |
| 218 | Unit Ratings Unit Ratings Refrigerant Velocity Refrigerant Velocity Frost Condition Frost Condition Defrosting Defrosting |
| 219 | Basic Cooling Capacity Basic Cooling Capacity |
| 220 | Installation and Operation Installation and Operation More Information More Information References References |
| 221 | I-P_R10_Ch15 I-P_R10_Ch15 Fig. 1 Distribution of Stores in Retail Food Sector Fig. 1 Distribution of Stores in Retail Food Sector Fig. 1 Distribution of Stores in Retail Food Sector Fig. 1 Distribution of Stores in Retail Food Sector Fig. 2 Percentage of Electric Energy Consumption, by Use Category, of a Typical Large Supermarket Fig. 2 Percentage of Electric Energy Consumption, by Use Category, of a Typical Large Supermarket Fig. 2 Percentage of Electric Energy Consumption, by Use Category, of Typical Large Supermarket Fig. 2 Percentage of Electric Energy Consumption, by Use Category, of Typical Large Supermarket Display Refrigerators Display Refrigerators |
| 222 | Fig. 3 Percentage Distribution of Display Refrigerators, by Type, in a Typical Supermarket Fig. 3 Percentage Distribution of Display Refrigerators, by Type, in a Typical Supermarket Fig. 3 Percentage Distribution of Display Refrigerators, by Type, in Typical Supermarket Fig. 3 Percentage Distribution of Display Refrigerators, by Type, in Typical Supermarket Fig. 4 Selected Temperatures in an Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator Fig. 4 Selected Temperatures in an Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator Fig. 4 Selected Temperatures in Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator Fig. 4 Selected Temperatures in Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator Product Temperatures Product Temperatures Table 1 Air Temperatures in Display Refrigerators Table 1 Air Temperatures in Display Refrigerators |
| 223 | Fig. 5 Product Temperature Profiles at Four Different Locations Inside a Multideck Meat Refrigerator (Average Discharge Air Temperature of 29°F) Fig. 5 Product Temperature Profiles at Four Different Locations Inside a Multideck Meat Refrigerator (Average Discharge Air Temperature of 29°F) Fig. 5 Product Temperature Profiles at Four Different Locations Inside Multideck Meat Refrigerator (Average Discharge Air Temperature of 29°F) Fig. 5 Product Temperature Profiles at Four Different Locations Inside Multideck Meat Refrigerator (Average Discharge Air Temperature of 29°F) Fig. 6 Comparison of Maximum Product Temperature Variations Under Different Improper Product Loading Scenarios in an Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator Fig. 6 Comparison of Maximum Product Temperature Variations Under Different Improper Product Loading Scenarios in an Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator Fig. 6 Comparison of Maximum Product Temperature Variations Under Different Improper Product Loading Scenarios in Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator Fig. 6 Comparison of Maximum Product Temperature Variations Under Different Improper Product Loading Scenarios in Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator Table 2 Average Store Conditions in United States Table 2 Average Store Conditions in United States Store Ambient Effect Store Ambient Effect |
| 224 | Fig. 7 Comparison of Collected Condensate vs. Relative Humidity for Open Vertical Meat, Open Vertical Dairy/Deli, Narrow Island Coffin, and Glass Door Reach-In Display Refrigerators Fig. 7 Comparison of Collected Condensate vs. Relative Humidity for Open Vertical Meat, Open Vertical Dairy/Deli, Narrow Island Coffin, and Glass Door Reach-In Display Refrigerators Fig. 7 Comparison of Collected Condensate vs. Relative Humidity for Open Vertical Meat, Open Vertical Dairy/Deli, Narrow Island Coffin, and Glass Door Reach-In Display Refrigerators Fig. 7 Comparison of Collected Condensate vs. Relative Humidity for Open Vertical Meat, Open Vertical Dairy/Deli, Narrow Island Coffin, and Glass Door Reach-In Display Refrigerators Fig. 8 Percentage of Latent Load to Total Cooling Load at Different Indoor Relative Humidities Fig. 8 Percentage of Latent Load to Total Cooling Load at Different Indoor Relative Humidities Fig. 8 Percentage of Latent Load to Total Cooling Load at Different Indoor Relative Humidities Fig. 8 Percentage of Latent Load to Total Cooling Load at Different Indoor Relative Humidities Table 3 Relative Refrigeration Requirements with Varying Store Ambient Conditions Table 3 Relative Refrigeration Requirements with Varying Store Ambient Conditions Display Refrigerator Cooling Load and Heat Sources Display Refrigerator Cooling Load and Heat Sources |
| 225 | Fig. 9 Components of Refrigeration Load for Several Display Refrigerator Designs at 75°F Dry Bulb and 55% Relative Humidity Fig. 9 Components of Refrigeration Load for Several Display Refrigerator Designs at 75°F Dry Bulb and 55% Relative Humidity Fig. 9 Components of Refrigeration Load for Several Display Refrigerator Designs at 75°F db and 55% rh Fig. 9 Components of Refrigeration Load for Several Display Refrigerator Designs at 75°F db and 55% rh |
| 226 | Fig. 10 Velocity Streamlines of a Single-Band Air Curtain in an Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator, Captured Using Digital Particle Image Velocimetry Technique Fig. 10 Velocity Streamlines of a Single-Band Air Curtain in an Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator, Captured Using Digital Particle Image Velocimetry Technique Fig. 10 Velocity Streamlines of Single-Band Air Curtain in Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator, Captured Using Digital Particle Image Velocimetry Technique Fig. 10 Velocity Streamlines of Single-Band Air Curtain in Open Vertical Meat Display Refrigerator, Captured Using Digital Particle Image Velocimetry Technique Refrigerator Construction Refrigerator Construction Cleaning and Sanitizing Equipment Cleaning and Sanitizing Equipment Refrigeration Systems for Display Refrigerators Refrigeration Systems for Display Refrigerators Merchandising Applications Merchandising Applications |
| 227 | Fig. 11 Multideck Dairy Display Refrigerator Fig. 11 Multideck Dairy Display Refrigerator Fig. 11 Multideck Dairy Display Refrigerator Fig. 11 Multideck Dairy Display Refrigerator Fig. 12 Typical Walk-In Cooler Installation Fig. 12 Typical Walk-In Cooler Installation Fig. 12 Typical Walk-In Cooler Installation Fig. 12 Typical Walk-In Cooler Installation Fig. 13 Vertical Rear-Load Dairy (or Produce) Refrigerator with Roll-In Capability Fig. 13 Vertical Rear-Load Dairy (or Produce) Refrigerator with Roll-In Capability Fig. 13 Vertical Rear-Load Dairy (or Produce) Refrigerator with Roll-In Capability Fig. 13 Vertical Rear-Load Dairy (or Produce) Refrigerator with Roll-In Capability |
| 228 | Fig. 14 Single-Deck Meat Display Refrigerator Fig. 14 Single-Deck Meat Display Refrigerator Fig. 14 Single-Deck Meat Display Refrigerator Fig. 14 Single-Deck Meat Display Refrigerator Fig. 15 Multideck Meat Refrigerator Fig. 15 Multideck Meat Refrigerator Fig. 15 Multideck Meat Refrigerator Fig. 15 Multideck Meat Refrigerator Fig. 16 Closed-Service Display Refrigerator (Gravity Coil Model with Curved Front Glass) Fig. 16 Closed-Service Display Refrigerator (Gravity Coil Model with Curved Front Glass) Fig. 16 Closed-Service Display Refrigerator (Gravity Coil Model with Curved Front Glass) Fig. 16 Closed-Service Display Refrigerator (Gravity Coil Model with Curved Front Glass) |
| 229 | Fig. 17 Multideck Produce Refrigerator Fig. 17 Multideck Produce Refrigerator Fig. 17 Multideck Produce Refrigerator Fig. 17 Multideck Produce Refrigerator Fig. 18 Single-Deck Well-Type Frozen Food Refrigerator Fig. 18 Single-Deck Well-Type Frozen Food Refrigerator Fig. 18 Single-Deck Tub-Type Frozen Food Refrigerator Fig. 18 Single-Deck Tub-Type Frozen Food Refrigerator Frozen Food and Ice Cream Display Frozen Food and Ice Cream Display Fig. 19 Single-Deck Island Frozen Food Refrigerator Fig. 19 Single-Deck Island Frozen Food Refrigerator Fig. 19 Single-Deck Island Frozen Food Refrigerator Fig. 19 Single-Deck Island Frozen Food Refrigerator Fig. 20 Multideck Frozen Food Refrigerator Fig. 20 Multideck Frozen Food Refrigerator Fig. 20 Multideck Frozen Food Refrigerator Fig. 20 Multideck Frozen Food Refrigerator |
| 230 | Fig. 21 Glass Door, Frozen Food Reach-In Refrigerator Fig. 21 Glass Door, Frozen Food Reach-In Refrigerator Fig. 21 Glass Door, Medium-Temperature and Frozen Food Reach-In Refrigerator Fig. 21 Glass Door, Medium-Temperature and Frozen Food Reach-In Refrigerator Energy Efficiency Opportunities in Display Refrigerators Energy Efficiency Opportunities in Display Refrigerators |
| 231 | Fig. 22 External Liquid-Suction Heat Exchanger Fig. 22 External Liquid-Suction Heat Exchanger Fig. 22 External Liquid-to-Suction Heat Exchanger Fig. 22 External Liquid-to-Suction Heat Exchanger Refrigerated Storage Rooms Refrigerated Storage Rooms Meat Processing Rooms Meat Processing Rooms |
| 232 | Wrapped Meat Storage Wrapped Meat Storage Walk-In Coolers and Freezers Walk-In Coolers and Freezers Refrigeration Systems Refrigeration Systems Design Considerations Design Considerations |
| 233 | Typical Systems Typical Systems |
| 234 | Fig. 23 Stages with Mixed Compressors Fig. 23 Stages with Mixed Compressors Fig. 23 Stages with Mixed Compressors Fig. 23 Stages with Mixed Compressors Low-Charge Systems Low-Charge Systems |
| 235 | Fig. 24 Typical Single-Stage Compressor Efficiency Fig. 24 Typical Single-Stage Compressor Efficiency Fig. 24 Typical Single-Stage Compressor Efficiency Fig. 24 Typical Single-Stage Compressor Efficiency |
| 236 | Condensing Methods Condensing Methods Condenser Types Condenser Types |
| 237 | Fig. 25 Typical Air-Cooled Machine Room Layout Fig. 25 Typical Air-Cooled Machine Room Layout Fig. 25 Typical Air-Cooled Machine Room Layout Fig. 25 Typical Air-Cooled Machine Room Layout |
| 238 | Energy Efficiency of Condensers Energy Efficiency of Condensers Noise Noise Heat Recovery Strategies Heat Recovery Strategies Space Heating Space Heating |
| 239 | Water Heating Water Heating Fig. 26 Basic Parallel System with Remote Air-Cooled Condenser and Heat Recovery Fig. 26 Basic Parallel System with Remote Air-Cooled Condenser and Heat Recovery Fig. 26 Basic Parallel System with Remote Air-Cooled Condenser and Heat Recovery Fig. 26 Basic Parallel System with Remote Air-Cooled Condenser and Heat Recovery Liquid Subcooling Strategies Liquid Subcooling Strategies Methods of Defrost Methods of Defrost Conventional Refrigeration Systems Conventional Refrigeration Systems |
| 240 | Low-Charge Systems Low-Charge Systems Defrost Control Strategies Defrost Control Strategies Supermarket Air-Conditioning Systems Supermarket Air-Conditioning Systems System Types System Types Comfort Considerations Comfort Considerations |
| 241 | Interaction with Refrigeration Interaction with Refrigeration Environmental Control Environmental Control Energy Efficiency Energy Efficiency References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 243 | I-P_R10_Ch16 I-P_R10_Ch16 Refrigerated Cabinets Refrigerated Cabinets Reach-In Cabinets Reach-In Cabinets Fig. 1 Reach-In Food Storage Cabinet Features Fig. 1 Reach-In Food Storage Cabinet Features Fig. 1 Reach-In Food Storage Cabinet Features Fig. 1 Reach-In Food Storage Cabinet Features Fig. 2 Pass-Through Styles Facilitate Some Handling Situations Fig. 2 Pass-Through Styles Facilitate Some Handling Situations Fig. 2 Pass-Through (Reach-Through) Refrigerator Fig. 2 Pass-Through (Reach-Through) Refrigerator Roll-In Cabinets Roll-In Cabinets |
| 244 | Fig. 3 Open and Enclosed Roll-In Racks Fig. 3 Open and Enclosed Roll-In Racks Fig. 3 Open and Enclosed Roll-In Racks Fig. 3 Open and Enclosed Roll-In Racks Fig. 4 Roll-In Cabinet —Usually Part of a Food-Handling or Other Special-Purpose System Fig. 4 Roll-In Cabinet —Usually Part of a Food-Handling or Other Special-Purpose System Fig. 4 Roll-In Cabinet, Usually Part of Food-Handling or Other Special-Purpose System Fig. 4 Roll-In Cabinet, Usually Part of Food-Handling or Other Special-Purpose System Product Temperatures Product Temperatures Typical Construction Typical Construction Specialty Applications Specialty Applications |
| 245 | Refrigeration Systems Refrigeration Systems Food Freezers Food Freezers Blast Chillers and Blast Freezers Blast Chillers and Blast Freezers Walk-In Coolers/Freezers Walk-In Coolers/Freezers |
| 246 | Operating Temperatures Operating Temperatures Typical Construction Typical Construction Door Construction Door Construction Walk-In Floors Walk-In Floors Refrigeration Systems Refrigeration Systems Fig. 5 Refrigeration Equipment Added to Make a Walk-In Cooler Self-Contained Fig. 5 Refrigeration Equipment Added to Make a Walk-In Cooler Self-Contained Fig. 5 Refrigeration Equipment Added to Make a Walk-In Cooler Self-Contained Fig. 5 Refrigeration Equipment Added to Make a Walk-In Cooler Self-Contained Compressors Compressors Evaporators Evaporators |
| 247 | Refrigeration Sizing Refrigeration Sizing Maintenance and Operation Maintenance and Operation Vending Machines Vending Machines Fig. 6 Estimated 1994 Breakdown of Beverage Vending Machines by Type Fig. 6 Estimated 1994 Breakdown of Beverage Vending Machines by Type Fig. 6 Estimated 1994 Breakdown of Beverage Vending Machines by Type Fig. 6 Estimated 1994 Breakdown of Beverage Vending Machines by Type Types of Refrigerated Vending Machines Types of Refrigerated Vending Machines Refrigeration Systems Refrigeration Systems Cooling Load Components Cooling Load Components |
| 248 | Fig. 7 Energy Use by Component Typical Vending Machines Fig. 7 Energy Use by Component Typical Vending Machines Fig. 7 Energy Use by Component For Typical Vending Machines Fig. 7 Energy Use by Component For Typical Vending Machines Sensitivity to Surroundings Sensitivity to Surroundings Maintenance and Operation Maintenance and Operation Ice Machines Ice Machines Typical Operation and Construction Typical Operation and Construction Refrigeration Systems Refrigeration Systems Maintenance and Operations Maintenance and Operations |
| 249 | Preparation Tables Preparation Tables Fig. 8 Refrigerated Preparation Table Fig. 8 Refrigerated Preparation Table Fig. 8 Refrigerated Preparation Table Fig. 8 Refrigerated Preparation Table Product Temperatures Product Temperatures Typical Construction Typical Construction Energy Efficiency Opportunities Energy Efficiency Opportunities Table 1 Applicability of Energy-Efficiency Opportunities to Refrigeration Equipment Table 1 Applicability of Energy-Efficiency Opportunities to Refrigeration Equipment |
| 250 | References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 251 | I-P_R10_Ch17 I-P_R10_Ch17 Primary Functions Primary Functions Food Preservation Food Preservation Special-Purpose Compartments Special-Purpose Compartments Fig. 1 Common Configurations of Contemporary Household Refrigerators and Freezers Fig. 1 Common Configurations of Contemporary Household Refrigerators and Freezers Fig. 1 Common Configurations of Contemporary Household Refrigerators and Freezers Fig. 1 Common Configurations of Contemporary Household Refrigerators and Freezers |
| 252 | Ice and Water Service Ice and Water Service Cabinets Cabinets Use of Space Use of Space Thermal Loads Thermal Loads Fig. 2 Cabinet Cross Section Showing Typical Contributions to Total Basic Heat Load Fig. 2 Cabinet Cross Section Showing Typical Contributions to Total Basic Heat Load Fig. 2 Cabinet Cross Section Showing Typical Contributions to Total Basic Heat Load Fig. 2 Cabinet Cross Section Showing Typical Contributions to Total Basic Heat Load |
| 253 | Insulation Insulation Fig. 3 Example Cross Section of Vacuum Insulation Panel Fig. 3 Example Cross Section of Vacuum Insulation Panel Fig. 3 Example Cross Section of Vacuum-Insulated Panel Fig. 3 Example Cross Section of Vacuum-Insulated Panel Structure and Materials Structure and Materials |
| 254 | Moisture Sealing Moisture Sealing Door Latching and Entrapment Door Latching and Entrapment Cabinet Testing Cabinet Testing Refrigerating Systems Refrigerating Systems |
| 255 | Refrigerating Circuit Refrigerating Circuit Fig. 4 Refrigeration Circuit Fig. 4 Refrigeration Circuit Fig. 4 Refrigeration Circuit Fig. 4 Refrigeration Circuit Defrosting Defrosting |
| 256 | Evaporator Evaporator Fig. 5 Spine-Fin and Egg-Crate Evaporator Detail Fig. 5 Spine-Fin and Egg-Crate Evaporator Detail Fig. 5 Spine-Fin and Egg-Crate Evaporator Detail Fig. 5 Spine-Fin and Egg-Crate Evaporator Detail Condenser Condenser Fans Fans |
| 257 | Capillary Tube Capillary Tube Fig. 6 Typical Effect of Capillary Tube Selection on Unit Running Time Fig. 6 Typical Effect of Capillary Tube Selection on Unit Running Time Fig. 6 Typical Effect of Capillary Tube Selection on Unit Running Time Fig. 6 Typical Effect of Capillary Tube Selection on Unit Running Time Compressor Compressor Fig. 7 Refrigerator Compressors Fig. 7 Refrigerator Compressors Fig. 7 Refrigerator Compressors Fig. 7 Refrigerator Compressors |
| 258 | Variable-Speed Compressors Variable-Speed Compressors Linear Compressors Linear Compressors Temperature Control System Temperature Control System |
| 259 | System Design and Balance System Design and Balance Processing and Assembly Procedures Processing and Assembly Procedures Performance and Evaluation Performance and Evaluation Environmental Test Rooms Environmental Test Rooms Standard Performance Test Procedures Standard Performance Test Procedures |
| 260 | Table 1 Comparison of General Test Requirements for Various Test Methods Table 1 Comparison of General Test Requirements for Various Test Methods |
| 261 | Special Performance Testing Special Performance Testing Materials Testing Materials Testing Component Life Testing Component Life Testing Field Testing Field Testing Safety Requirements Safety Requirements |
| 262 | Durability and Service Durability and Service References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 263 | I-P_R10_Ch18 I-P_R10_Ch18 Fig. 1 Similarities Between Absorption and Vapor Compression Systems Fig. 1 Similarities Between Absorption and Vapor Compression Systems Fig. 1 Similarities Between Absorption and Vapor Compression Systems Fig. 1 Similarities Between Absorption and Vapor Compression Systems Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Technology Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Technology Components and Terminology Components and Terminology |
| 264 | Single-Effect Lithium Bromide Chillers Single-Effect Lithium Bromide Chillers Fig. 2 Two-Shell Lithium Bromide Cycle Water Chiller Fig. 2 Two-Shell Lithium Bromide Cycle Water Chiller Fig. 2 Two-Shell Lithium Bromide Cycle Water Chiller Fig. 2 Two-Shell Lithium Bromide Cycle Water Chiller |
| 265 | Table 1 Characteristics of Typical Single-Effect, Indirect- Fired, Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller Table 1 Characteristics of Typical Single-Effect, Indirect- Fired, Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller Single-Effect Heat Transformers Single-Effect Heat Transformers Double-Effect Chillers Double-Effect Chillers |
| 266 | Fig. 3 Single-Effect Heat Transformer Fig. 3 Single-Effect Heat Transformer Fig. 3 Single-Effect Heat Transformer Fig. 3 Single-Effect Heat Transformer Fig. 4 Double-Effect Indirect-Fired Chiller Fig. 4 Double-Effect Indirect-Fired Chiller Fig. 4 Double-Effect Indirect-Fired Chiller Fig. 4 Double-Effect Indirect-Fired Chiller Table 2 Characteristics of Typical Double-Effect, Indirect- Fired, Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller Table 2 Characteristics of Typical Double-Effect, Indirect- Fired, Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller |
| 267 | Fig. 5 Double-Effect, Direct-Fired Chiller Fig. 5 Double-Effect, Direct-Fired Chiller Fig. 5 Double-Effect, Direct-Fired Chiller Fig. 5 Double-Effect, Direct-Fired Chiller Table 3 Characteristics of Typical Double-Effect, Direct- Fired, Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller Table 3 Characteristics of Typical Double-Effect, Direct- Fired, Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller |
| 268 | Operation Operation |
| 269 | Machine Setup and Maintenance Machine Setup and Maintenance Ammonia/Water Absorption Equipment Ammonia/Water Absorption Equipment Residential Chillers and Components Residential Chillers and Components Fig. 6 Ammonia-Water Direct-Fired Air-Cooled Chiller Fig. 6 Ammonia-Water Direct-Fired Air-Cooled Chiller Fig. 6 Ammonia/Water Direct-Fired Air-Cooled Chiller Fig. 6 Ammonia/Water Direct-Fired Air-Cooled Chiller |
| 270 | Table 4 Physical Characteristics of Typical Ammonia/Water Absorption Chiller Table 4 Physical Characteristics of Typical Ammonia/Water Absorption Chiller Fig. 7 Domestic Absorption Refrigeration Cycle Fig. 7 Domestic Absorption Refrigeration Cycle Fig. 7 Domestic Absorption Refrigeration Cycle Fig. 7 Domestic Absorption Refrigeration Cycle Domestic Absorption Refrigerators and Controls Domestic Absorption Refrigerators and Controls |
| 271 | Industrial Absorption Refrigeration Units Industrial Absorption Refrigeration Units Special Applications and Emerging Products Special Applications and Emerging Products Systems Combining Power Production with Waste-Heat-Activated Absorption Cooling Systems Combining Power Production with Waste-Heat-Activated Absorption Cooling |
| 272 | Triple-Effect Cycles Triple-Effect Cycles GAX (Generator-Absorber Heat Exchange) Cycle GAX (Generator-Absorber Heat Exchange) Cycle Solid-Vapor Sorption Systems Solid-Vapor Sorption Systems Liquid Desiccant/Absorption Systems Liquid Desiccant/Absorption Systems Information Sources Information Sources |
| 273 | References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 275 | I-P_R10_Ch19 I-P_R10_Ch19 Thermal Properties of Food Constituents Thermal Properties of Food Constituents Thermal Properties of Foods Thermal Properties of Foods Table 1 Thermal Property Models for Food Components (–40 £ t £ 300°F) Table 1 Thermal Property Models for Food Components (–40 £ t £ 300°F) |
| 276 | Table 2 Thermal Property Models for Water and Ice (– 40 £ t £ 300°F) Table 2 Thermal Property Models for Water and Ice (– 40 £ t £ 300°F) Water Content Water Content Initial Freezing Point Initial Freezing Point Ice Fraction Ice Fraction |
| 277 | Table 3 Unfrozen Composition Data, Initial Freezing Point, and Specific Heats of Foods* Table 3 Unfrozen Composition Data, Initial Freezing Point, and Specific Heats of Foods* |
| 280 | Density Density Specific Heat Specific Heat |
| 281 | Unfrozen Food Unfrozen Food Frozen Food Frozen Food Enthalpy Enthalpy |
| 282 | Unfrozen Food Unfrozen Food Frozen Foods Frozen Foods |
| 283 | Thermal Conductivity Thermal Conductivity |
| 284 | Table 4 Enthalpy of Frozen Foods Table 4 Enthalpy of Frozen Foods |
| 286 | Table 5 Thermal Conductivity of Foods Table 5 Thermal Conductivity of Foods |
| 290 | Table 6 Thermal Conductivity of Freeze-Dried Foods Table 6 Thermal Conductivity of Freeze-Dried Foods |
| 291 | Thermal Diffusivity Thermal Diffusivity Heat of Respiration Heat of Respiration |
| 292 | Table 7 Thermal Diffusivity of Foods Table 7 Thermal Diffusivity of Foods |
| 293 | Table 8 Commodity Respiration Coefficients Table 8 Commodity Respiration Coefficients Transpiration of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Transpiration of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables |
| 294 | Table 9 Heat of Respiration of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Held at Various Temperatures Table 9 Heat of Respiration of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Held at Various Temperatures |
| 297 | Table 10 Change in Respiration Rates with Time Table 10 Change in Respiration Rates with Time |
| 298 | Table 11 Transpiration Coefficients of Certain Fruits and Vegetables Table 11 Transpiration Coefficients of Certain Fruits and Vegetables Table 12 Commodity Skin Mass Transfer Coefficient Table 12 Commodity Skin Mass Transfer Coefficient Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient |
| 299 | Evaluation of Thermophysical Property Models Evaluation of Thermophysical Property Models Table 13 Surface Heat Transfer Coefficients for Food Products Table 13 Surface Heat Transfer Coefficients for Food Products |
| 301 | Symbols Symbols |
| 302 | References References |
| 305 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 307 | I-P_R10_Ch20 I-P_R10_Ch20 Thermodynamics of Cooling and Freezing Thermodynamics of Cooling and Freezing Cooling Times of Foods and Beverages Cooling Times of Foods and Beverages Cooling Time Estimation Methods Based on f and j Factors Cooling Time Estimation Methods Based on f and j Factors |
| 308 | Fig. 1 Typical Cooling Curve Fig. 1 Typical Cooling Curve Fig. 1 Typical Cooling Curve Fig. 1 Typical Cooling Curve Fig. 2 Relationship Between fa/r 2 and Biot Number for Infinite Slab, Infinite Cylinder, and Sphere Fig. 2 Relationship Between fa/r 2 and Biot Number for Infinite Slab, Infinite Cylinder, and Sphere Fig. 2 Relationship Between f a /r 2 and Biot Number for Infinite Slab, Infinite Cylinder, and Sphere Fig. 2 Relationship Between f a /r 2 and Biot Number for Infinite Slab, Infinite Cylinder, and Sphere Fig. 3 Relationship Between jc Value for Thermal Center Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Fig. 3 Relationship Between jc Value for Thermal Center Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Fig. 3 Relationship Between jc Value for Thermal Center Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Fig. 3 Relationship Between jc Value for Thermal Center Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Fig. 4 Relationship Between jm Value for Mass Average Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Fig. 4 Relationship Between jm Value for Mass Average Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Fig. 4 Relationship Between jm Value for Mass Average Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Fig. 4 Relationship Between jm Value for Mass Average Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Determination of f and j Factors for Slabs, Cylinders, and Spheres Determination of f and j Factors for Slabs, Cylinders, and Spheres |
| 309 | Fig. 5 Relationship Between js Value for Surface Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Fig. 5 Relationship Between js Value for Surface Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Fig. 5 Relationship Between js Value for Surface Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Fig. 5 Relationship Between js Value for Surface Temperature and Biot Number for Various Shapes Table 1 Expressions for Estimating f and jc Factors for Thermal Center Temperature of Infinite Slabs Table 1 Expressions for Estimating f and jc Factors for Thermal Center Temperature of Infinite Slabs Table 2 Expressions for Estimating f and jc Factors for Thermal Center Temperature of Infinite Cylinders Table 2 Expressions for Estimating f and jc Factors for Thermal Center Temperature of Infinite Cylinders Table 3 Expressions for Estimating f and jc Factors for Thermal Center Temperature of Spheres Table 3 Expressions for Estimating f and jc Factors for Thermal Center Temperature of Spheres Determination of f and j Factors for Irregular Shapes Determination of f and j Factors for Irregular Shapes |
| 310 | Fig. 6 Nomograph for Estimating Value of M21 from Reciprocal of Biot Number and Smith’s (1966) Geometry Index Fig. 6 Nomograph for Estimating Value of M21 from Reciprocal of Biot Number and Smith’s (1966) Geometry Index Fig. 6 Nomograph for Estimating Value of M12 from Recipro- cal of Biot Number and Smith’s (1966) Geometry Index Fig. 6 Nomograph for Estimating Value of M12 from Recipro- cal of Biot Number and Smith’s (1966) Geometry Index Cooling Time Estimation Methods Based on Equivalent Heat Transfer Dimensionality Cooling Time Estimation Methods Based on Equivalent Heat Transfer Dimensionality |
| 311 | Algorithms for Estimating Cooling Time Algorithms for Estimating Cooling Time Table 4 Geometric Parameters Table 4 Geometric Parameters Sample Problems for Estimating Cooling Time Sample Problems for Estimating Cooling Time |
| 313 | Freezing Times of Foods and Beverages Freezing Times of Foods and Beverages Plank’s Equation Plank’s Equation Modifications to Plank’s Equation Modifications to Plank’s Equation |
| 314 | Precooling, Phase Change, and Subcooling Time Calculations Precooling, Phase Change, and Subcooling Time Calculations |
| 315 | Table 5 Expressions for P and R Table 5 Expressions for P and R Geometric Considerations Geometric Considerations |
| 316 | Table 6 Definition of Variables for Freezing Time Estimation Method Table 6 Definition of Variables for Freezing Time Estimation Method Table 7 Geometric Constants Table 7 Geometric Constants |
| 317 | Table 8 Expressions for Equivalent Heat Transfer Dimensionality Table 8 Expressions for Equivalent Heat Transfer Dimensionality Table 9 Summary of Methods for Determining Equivalent Heat Transfer Dimensionality Table 9 Summary of Methods for Determining Equivalent Heat Transfer Dimensionality |
| 318 | Table 10 Estimation Methods of Freezing Time of Regularly and Irregularly Shaped Foods Table 10 Estimation Methods of Freezing Time of Regularly and Irregularly Shaped Foods Evaluation of Freezing Time Estimation Methods Evaluation of Freezing Time Estimation Methods Algorithms for Freezing Time Estimation Algorithms for Freezing Time Estimation |
| 319 | Sample Problems for Estimating Freezing Time Sample Problems for Estimating Freezing Time |
| 320 | Symbols Symbols |
| 321 | References References |
| 322 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 323 | I-P_R10_Ch21 I-P_R10_Ch21 Refrigerated Storage Refrigerated Storage Cooling Cooling Deterioration Deterioration Desiccation Desiccation |
| 324 | Table 1 Storage Requirements of Vegetables, Fresh Fruits, and Melons Table 1 Storage Requirements of Vegetables, Fresh Fruits, and Melons |
| 331 | Table 2 Storage Requirements of Other Perishable Products Table 2 Storage Requirements of Other Perishable Products |
| 332 | Refrigerated Storage Plant Operation Refrigerated Storage Plant Operation Checking Temperatures and Humidity Checking Temperatures and Humidity Air Circulation Air Circulation Sanitation and Air Purification Sanitation and Air Purification |
| 333 | Removal of Produce from Storage Removal of Produce from Storage Storage of Frozen Foods Storage of Frozen Foods Other Products Other Products Beer Beer Canned Foods Canned Foods Dried Foods Dried Foods Furs and Fabrics Furs and Fabrics Honey Honey Table 3 Temperature and Time Requirements for Killing Moths in Stored Clothing Table 3 Temperature and Time Requirements for Killing Moths in Stored Clothing |
| 334 | Maple Syrup Maple Syrup Nursery Stock and Cut Flowers Nursery Stock and Cut Flowers Table 4 Storage Conditions for Cut Flowers and Nursery Stock Table 4 Storage Conditions for Cut Flowers and Nursery Stock |
| 335 | Popcorn Popcorn Vegetable Seeds Vegetable Seeds References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 337 | I-P_R10_Ch22 I-P_R10_Ch22 Basic Microbiology Basic Microbiology Sources of Microorganisms Sources of Microorganisms Microbial Growth Microbial Growth Fig. 1 Typical Microbial Growth Curve Fig. 1 Typical Microbial Growth Curve Fig. 1 Typical Microbial Growth Curve Fig. 1 Typical Microbial Growth Curve Critical Microbial Growth Requirements Critical Microbial Growth Requirements |
| 338 | Table 1 Approximate Minimum Water Activity for Growth of Microorganisms Table 1 Approximate Minimum Water Activity for Growth of Microorganisms Intrinsic Factors Intrinsic Factors Table 2 Minimum Growth Temperatures for Some Bacteria in Foods Table 2 Minimum Growth Temperatures for Some Bacteria in Foods Fig. 2 pH Ranges for Microbial Growth and Representative Examples Fig. 2 pH Ranges for Microbial Growth and Representative Examples Fig. 2 pH Ranges for Microbial Growth and Representative Examples Fig. 2 pH Ranges for Microbial Growth and Representative Examples Extrinsic Factors Extrinsic Factors |
| 339 | Biological Diversity Biological Diversity Design for Control of Microorganisms Design for Control of Microorganisms Contamination Prevention Contamination Prevention |
| 340 | Growth Prevention Growth Prevention Destruction of Organisms Destruction of Organisms The Role of HACCP The Role of HACCP Sanitation Sanitation Table 3 Common Cleaning and Sanitizing Chemicals Table 3 Common Cleaning and Sanitizing Chemicals |
| 341 | Regulations and Standards Regulations and Standards Bibliography Bibliography |
| 342 | I-P_R10_Ch23 I-P_R10_Ch23 Initial Building Considerations Initial Building Considerations Location Location Configuration and Size Determination Configuration and Size Determination |
| 343 | Stacking Arrangement Stacking Arrangement Building Design Building Design One-Story Configuration One-Story Configuration Fig. 1 Typical Plan for One-Story Refrigerated Facility Fig. 1 Typical Plan for One-Story Refrigerated Facility Fig. 1 Typical Plan for One-Story Refrigerated Facility Fig. 1 Typical Plan for One-Story Refrigerated Facility |
| 344 | Shipping and Receiving Docks Shipping and Receiving Docks Utility Space Utility Space Specialized Storage Facilities Specialized Storage Facilities Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Rooms Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Rooms |
| 345 | Automated Warehouses Automated Warehouses Refrigerated Rooms Refrigerated Rooms Construction Methods Construction Methods Fig. 2 Total Exterior Vapor Retarder System Fig. 2 Total Exterior Vapor Retarder System Fig. 2 Total Exterior Vapor Retarder/Insulation System Fig. 2 Total Exterior Vapor Retarder/Insulation System Fig. 3 Entirely Interior Vapor Retarder System Fig. 3 Entirely Interior Vapor Retarder System Fig. 3 Entirely Interior Vapor Retarder/Insulation System Fig. 3 Entirely Interior Vapor Retarder/Insulation System |
| 346 | Fig. 4 Interior-Exterior Vapor Retarder System Fig. 4 Interior-Exterior Vapor Retarder System Fig. 4 Interior/Exterior Vapor Retarder/Insulation System Fig. 4 Interior/Exterior Vapor Retarder/Insulation System Fig. 5 Separate Exterior Vapor Retarder Systems for Each Area of Significantly Different Temperature Fig. 5 Separate Exterior Vapor Retarder Systems for Each Area of Significantly Different Temperature Fig. 5 Separate Exterior Vapor Retarder Systems for Each Area of Significantly Different Temperature Fig. 5 Separate Exterior Vapor Retarder Systems for Each Area of Significantly Different Temperature Space Adjacent to Envelope Space Adjacent to Envelope Air/Vapor Treatment at Junctions Air/Vapor Treatment at Junctions Floor Construction Floor Construction |
| 347 | Surface Preparation Surface Preparation Finishes Finishes Suspended Ceilings and Other Interstitial Spaces Suspended Ceilings and Other Interstitial Spaces Floor Drains Floor Drains Electrical Wiring Electrical Wiring Tracking Tracking Cold-Storage Doors Cold-Storage Doors |
| 348 | Hardware Hardware Refrigerated Docks Refrigerated Docks Schneider System Schneider System Refrigeration Systems Refrigeration Systems Types of Refrigeration Systems Types of Refrigeration Systems Choice of Refrigerant Choice of Refrigerant |
| 349 | Load Determination Load Determination Table 1 Refrigeration Design Load Factors for Typical 100,000 ft2 Single-Floor Freezer* Table 1 Refrigeration Design Load Factors for Typical 100,000 ft2 Single-Floor Freezer* Unit Cooler Selection Unit Cooler Selection |
| 350 | Fig. 6 Fan-Coil Units for Refrigerated Facilities Fig. 6 Fan-Coil Units for Refrigerated Facilities Fig. 6 Typical Fan-Coil Unit Configurations for Refrigerated Facilities Fig. 6 Typical Fan-Coil Unit Configurations for Refrigerated Facilities |
| 351 | Fig. 7 Penthouse Cooling Units Fig. 7 Penthouse Cooling Units Fig. 7 Penthouse Cooling Units Fig. 7 Penthouse Cooling Units Freezers Freezers Fig. 8 Typical Blast Freezer Fig. 8 Typical Blast Freezer Fig. 8 Typical Blast Freezer Fig. 8 Typical Blast Freezer |
| 352 | Controls Controls |
| 353 | Insulation Techniques Insulation Techniques Vapor Retarder System Vapor Retarder System Types of Insulation Types of Insulation |
| 354 | Table 2 Recommended Insulation R-Values Table 2 Recommended Insulation R-Values Insulation Thickness Insulation Thickness Applying Insulation Applying Insulation Roofs Roofs Walls Walls Floors Floors |
| 355 | Fig. 9 Typical One-Story Construction with Underfloor Warming Pipes Fig. 9 Typical One-Story Construction with Underfloor Warming Pipes Fig. 9 Typical One-Story Construction with Underfloor Warming Pipes Fig. 9 Typical One-Story Construction with Underfloor Warming Pipes Freezer Doorways Freezer Doorways Doors Doors |
| 356 | Other Considerations Other Considerations Temperature Pulldown Temperature Pulldown Material-Handling Equipment Material-Handling Equipment Fire Protection Fire Protection |
| 357 | Inspection and Maintenance Inspection and Maintenance References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 358 | I-P_R10_Ch24 I-P_R10_Ch24 Transmission Load Transmission Load Table 1 Thermal Conductivity of Cold Storage Insulation Table 1 Thermal Conductivity of Cold Storage Insulation Table 2 Minimum Insulation Thickness Table 2 Minimum Insulation Thickness |
| 359 | Table 3 Allowance for Sun Effect Table 3 Allowance for Sun Effect Heat Gain from Cooler Floors Heat Gain from Cooler Floors Table 4 Example Input Data Required to Estimate Cooler Floor Heat Gain Table 4 Example Input Data Required to Estimate Cooler Floor Heat Gain Table 5 Typical Annual and Annual Amplitude Outdoor Temperatures for Warm and Cold Climates Table 5 Typical Annual and Annual Amplitude Outdoor Temperatures for Warm and Cold Climates Fig. 1 Variation of Cooler Floor Heat Gain over One Year for Conditions in Table 1 Fig. 1 Variation of Cooler Floor Heat Gain over One Year for Conditions in Table 1 Fig. 1 Variation of Cooler Floor Heat Gain over One Year for Conditions in Table 4 Fig. 1 Variation of Cooler Floor Heat Gain over One Year for Conditions in Table 4 |
| 360 | Product Load Product Load Fig. 2 Variation of Qmax /A with A/P Using Conditions from Tables 1 and 2 Fig. 2 Variation of Qmax /A with A/P Using Conditions from Tables 1 and 2 Fig. 2 Variation of qmax /A with A/P Using Conditions from Tables 4 and 5 Fig. 2 Variation of qmax /A with A/P Using Conditions from Tables 4 and 5 Internal Load Internal Load |
| 361 | Table 6 Heat Gain from Typical Electric Motors Table 6 Heat Gain from Typical Electric Motors Infiltration Air Load Infiltration Air Load Table 7 Heat Equivalent of Occupancy Table 7 Heat Equivalent of Occupancy Infiltration by Air Exchange Infiltration by Air Exchange Fig. 3 Flowing Cold and Warm Air Masses for Typical Open Freezer Doors Fig. 3 Flowing Cold and Warm Air Masses for Typical Open Freezer Doors Fig. 3 Flowing Cold and Warm Air Masses for Typical Open Freezer Doors Fig. 3 Flowing Cold and Warm Air Masses for Typical Open Freezer Doors |
| 362 | Fig. 4 Psychrometric Depiction of Air Exchange for Typical Freezer Doorway Fig. 4 Psychrometric Depiction of Air Exchange for Typical Freezer Doorway Fig. 4 Psychrometric Depiction of Air Exchange for Typical Freezer Doorway Fig. 4 Psychrometric Depiction of Air Exchange for Typical Freezer Doorway Table 8 Sensible Heat Ratio Rs for Infiltration from Outdoors to Refrigerated Spaces Table 8 Sensible Heat Ratio Rs for Infiltration from Outdoors to Refrigerated Spaces Fig. 5 Sensible Heat Gain by Air Exchange for Continuously Open Door with Fully Established Flow Fig. 5 Sensible Heat Gain by Air Exchange for Continuously Open Door with Fully Established Flow Fig. 5 Sensible Heat Gain by Air Exchange for Continuously Open Door with Fully Established Flow Fig. 5 Sensible Heat Gain by Air Exchange for Continuously Open Door with Fully Established Flow |
| 363 | Table 9 Sensible Heat Ratio Rs for Infiltration from Warmer to Colder Refrigerated Spaces Table 9 Sensible Heat Ratio Rs for Infiltration from Warmer to Colder Refrigerated Spaces Infiltration by Direct Flow Through Doorways Infiltration by Direct Flow Through Doorways Sensible and Latent Heat Components Sensible and Latent Heat Components Equipment Related Load Equipment Related Load |
| 364 | Safety Factor Safety Factor |
| 365 | Load Diversity Load Diversity References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 366 | I-P_R10_Ch25 I-P_R10_Ch25 Vehicles Vehicles Fig. 1 Refrigerated Cargo Container Fig. 1 Refrigerated Cargo Container Fig. 1 Refrigerated Cargo Container Fig. 1 Refrigerated Cargo Container Vehicle Design Considerations Vehicle Design Considerations Insulation and Vapor Barrier Insulation and Vapor Barrier |
| 367 | Fig. 2 Mechanical Railway Refrigerator Car Fig. 2 Mechanical Railway Refrigerator Car Fig. 2 Mechanical Railway Refrigerator Car Fig. 2 Mechanical Railway Refrigerator Car |
| 368 | Fig. 3 Heat Load from Air Leakage Fig. 3 Heat Load from Air Leakage Fig. 3 Heat Load from Air Leakage Fig. 3 Heat Load from Air Leakage Air Circulation Air Circulation Fig. 4 Air Delivery Systems (A) Top and (B) Bottom Fig. 4 Air Delivery Systems (A) Top and (B) Bottom Fig. 4 Air Delivery Systems (A) Top and (B) Bottom Fig. 4 Air Delivery Systems (A) Top and (B) Bottom Equipment Attachment Provisions Equipment Attachment Provisions Sanitation Sanitation Equipment Equipment Mechanical Cooling and Heating Mechanical Cooling and Heating |
| 369 | Fig. 5 Container Refrigeration Unit Fig. 5 Container Refrigeration Unit Fig. 5 Container Refrigeration Unit Fig. 5 Container Refrigeration Unit Fig. 6 Trailer Unit Installation Fig. 6 Trailer Unit Installation Fig. 6 Trailer Unit Installation Fig. 6 Trailer Unit Installation Fig. 7 Small Truck Refrigeration System Fig. 7 Small Truck Refrigeration System Fig. 7 Small Truck Refrigeration System Fig. 7 Small Truck Refrigeration System |
| 370 | Fig. 8 Multitemperature Refrigeration System Fig. 8 Multitemperature Refrigeration System Fig. 8 Multitemperature Refrigeration System Fig. 8 Multitemperature Refrigeration System Fig. 9 Examples of Common Multitemperature Configurations Fig. 9 Examples of Common Multitemperature Configurations Fig. 9 Examples of Common Multitemperature Configurations Fig. 9 Examples of Common Multitemperature Configurations Storage Effect Cooling Storage Effect Cooling Heating Only Heating Only Ventilation Ventilation Controlled and Modified Atmosphere Controlled and Modified Atmosphere Control Systems Control Systems |
| 371 | Equipment Design and Selection Factors Equipment Design and Selection Factors Time Time Shock and Vibration Shock and Vibration Table 1 Typical Peak Shock Levels Table 1 Typical Peak Shock Levels Ambient Temperature Extremes Ambient Temperature Extremes |
| 372 | Table 2 Ambient Temperatures for Equipment Design in Several Geographical Regions Table 2 Ambient Temperatures for Equipment Design in Several Geographical Regions Other Ambient Design Factors Other Ambient Design Factors Operating Economy Operating Economy Airborne Sound Airborne Sound Safety Safety |
| 373 | Qualification Testing Qualification Testing System Application Factors System Application Factors Load Calculations Load Calculations |
| 374 | Equipment Selection Equipment Selection Owning and Operating Costs Owning and Operating Costs |
| 375 | Operations Operations Commodity Precooling Commodity Precooling Vehicle Use Practices Vehicle Use Practices Temperature Settings Temperature Settings Other Cargo Space Considerations Other Cargo Space Considerations |
| 376 | Maintenance Maintenance References References |
| 377 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 378 | I-P_R10_Ch26 I-P_R10_Ch26 Refrigeration Load Refrigeration Load Refrigeration System Refrigeration System Refrigerants Refrigerants Compressors Compressors Condensers and Coolers Condensers and Coolers Table 1 Operating and Reserve Capacities of Condensing Units Table 1 Operating and Reserve Capacities of Condensing Units |
| 379 | Receivers and Refrigerant Distribution Receivers and Refrigerant Distribution Controls Controls Thermometers and Thermostats Thermometers and Thermostats Cargo Holds Cargo Holds Arrangement Arrangement Space Cooling Space Cooling Insulation and Construction Insulation and Construction |
| 380 | Applying Insulation Applying Insulation |
| 381 | Decks and Doors Decks and Doors Fig. 1 Floor Drain Fitting Fig. 1 Floor Drain Fitting Fig. 1 Floor Drain Fitting Fig. 1 Floor Drain Fitting Ships’ Refrigerated Stores Ships’ Refrigerated Stores Table 2 Classifications for Ships’ Refrigeration Services Table 2 Classifications for Ships’ Refrigeration Services |
| 382 | Commodities Commodities Meats and Poultry Meats and Poultry Fish, Ice Cream, and Bread Fish, Ice Cream, and Bread Fruits and Vegetables Fruits and Vegetables Dairy Products, Ice, and Drinking Water Dairy Products, Ice, and Drinking Water Storage Areas Storage Areas Storage Space Requirements Storage Space Requirements Stores’ Arrangement and Location Stores’ Arrangement and Location |
| 383 | Ship Refrigerated Room Design Ship Refrigerated Room Design Refrigerated Room Construction Refrigerated Room Construction Specific Vessels Specific Vessels Cargo Vessels Cargo Vessels Specifications Specifications Calculations Calculations |
| 384 | Fishing Vessels Fishing Vessels Refrigeration System Design Refrigeration System Design Hold Preparation Hold Preparation Refrigeration with Ice Refrigeration with Ice Fig. 2 Typical Layout of Pens in Hold Fig. 2 Typical Layout of Pens in Hold Fig. 2 Typical Layout of Pens in Hold Fig. 2 Typical Layout of Pens in Hold |
| 385 | Refrigeration with Seawater Refrigeration with Seawater Fig. 3 Typical Under-Deck Freezer Plate Installation Fig. 3 Typical Under-Deck Freezer Plate Installation Fig. 3 Typical Underdeck Freezer Plate Installation Fig. 3 Typical Underdeck Freezer Plate Installation Fig. 4 Typical Marine Freezing Cell Fig. 4 Typical Marine Freezing Cell Fig. 4 Typical Marine Freezing Cell Fig. 4 Typical Marine Freezing Cell Process Freezing and Cold Storage Process Freezing and Cold Storage References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 386 | I-P_R10_Ch27 I-P_R10_Ch27 Fig. 1 Flexible Passenger/Cargo Mix Fig. 1 Flexible Passenger/Cargo Mix Fig. 1 Flexible Passenger/Cargo Mix Fig. 1 Flexible Passenger/Cargo Mix Fig. 2 Payload-Range Comparison for Wide-Body Jet Fig. 2 Payload-Range Comparison for Wide-Body Jet Fig. 2 Payload/Range Comparison for Wide-Body Jet Fig. 2 Payload/Range Comparison for Wide-Body Jet Perishable Air Cargo Perishable Air Cargo Fruits and Vegetables Fruits and Vegetables |
| 387 | Seafood Seafood Animals Animals Perishable Commodity Requirements Perishable Commodity Requirements Fig. 3 Temperature of Strawberries Shipped by Air and Rail Fig. 3 Temperature of Strawberries Shipped by Air and Rail Fig. 3 Temperature of Strawberries Shipped by Air and Rail Fig. 3 Temperature of Strawberries Shipped by Air and Rail Design Considerations Design Considerations |
| 388 | Shipping Containers Shipping Containers Fig. 4 Insulated Containers Designed to Fit Configuration of Cargo Aircraft Fig. 4 Insulated Containers Designed to Fit Configuration of Cargo Aircraft Fig. 4 Insulated Containers Designed to Fit Configuration of Cargo Aircraft Fig. 4 Insulated Containers Designed to Fit Configuration of Cargo Aircraft Transit Refrigeration Transit Refrigeration |
| 389 | Ground Handling Ground Handling Fig. 5 Ground Service Equipment Arrangement Fig. 5 Ground Service Equipment Arrangement Fig. 5 Typical Ground Service Equipment Arrangement Fig. 5 Typical Ground Service Equipment Arrangement |
| 390 | Galley Refrigeration Galley Refrigeration References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 392 | I-P_R10_Ch28 I-P_R10_Ch28 Product Requirements Product Requirements Calculation Methods Calculation Methods Heat Load Heat Load |
| 393 | Precooling Time Estimation Methods Precooling Time Estimation Methods Fractional Unaccomplished Temperature Difference Fractional Unaccomplished Temperature Difference Fig. 1 Typical Cooling Curve Fig. 1 Typical Cooling Curve Fig. 1 Typical Cooling Curve Fig. 1 Typical Cooling Curve Half-Cooling Time Half-Cooling Time Fig. 2 General Nomograph to Determine Half-Cooling Periods Fig. 2 General Nomograph to Determine Half-Cooling Periods Fig. 2 General Nomograph to Determine Half-Cooling Periods Fig. 2 General Nomograph to Determine Half-Cooling Periods |
| 394 | Table 1 Half-Cooling Times for Hydrocooling of Various Commodities Table 1 Half-Cooling Times for Hydrocooling of Various Commodities Cooling Coefficient Cooling Coefficient Other Semianalytical/Empirical Precooling Time Estimation Methods Other Semianalytical/Empirical Precooling Time Estimation Methods Numerical Techniques Numerical Techniques Cooling Methods Cooling Methods Hydrocooling Hydrocooling |
| 395 | Table 2 Lag Factors, Cooling Coefficients, and Half-Cooling Times for Hydrocooling Various Fruits and Vegetables Table 2 Lag Factors, Cooling Coefficients, and Half-Cooling Times for Hydrocooling Various Fruits and Vegetables Fig. 3 Schematic of Shower Hydrocooler Fig. 3 Schematic of Shower Hydrocooler Fig. 3 Schematic of Shower Hydrocooler Fig. 3 Schematic of Shower Hydrocooler Fig. 4 Schematic of Immersion Hydrocooler Fig. 4 Schematic of Immersion Hydrocooler Fig. 4 Schematic of Immersion Hydrocooler Fig. 4 Schematic of Immersion Hydrocooler Types of Hydrocoolers Types of Hydrocoolers |
| 396 | Table 3 Cooling Coefficients and Half-Cooling Times for Hydraircooling Sweet Corn and Celery Table 3 Cooling Coefficients and Half-Cooling Times for Hydraircooling Sweet Corn and Celery Table 4 Cooling Coefficients for Hydrocooling Peaches Table 4 Cooling Coefficients for Hydrocooling Peaches Variations on Hydrocooling Variations on Hydrocooling |
| 397 | Hydrocooler Efficiency Hydrocooler Efficiency Hydrocooling Water Treatment Hydrocooling Water Treatment Forced-Air Cooling Forced-Air Cooling |
| 398 | Commercial Methods Commercial Methods Fig. 5 Serpentine Forced-Air Cooler Fig. 5 Serpentine Forced-Air Cooler Fig. 5 Serpentine Forced-Air Cooler Fig. 5 Serpentine Forced-Air Cooler Effects of Containers and Stacking Patterns Effects of Containers and Stacking Patterns Moisture Loss in Forced-Air Cooling Moisture Loss in Forced-Air Cooling |
| 399 | Fig. 6 Engineering-Economic Model Output for a Forced-Air Cooler Fig. 6 Engineering-Economic Model Output for a Forced-Air Cooler Fig. 6 Engineering-Economic Model Output for Forced-Air Cooler Fig. 6 Engineering-Economic Model Output for Forced-Air Cooler Computer Solution Computer Solution Forced-Air Evaporative Cooling Forced-Air Evaporative Cooling Package Icing Package Icing |
| 400 | Vacuum Cooling Vacuum Cooling Pressure, Volume, and Temperature Pressure, Volume, and Temperature Fig. 7 Pressure, Volume, and Temperature in a Vacuum Cooler Cooling Product from 90 to 32°F Fig. 7 Pressure, Volume, and Temperature in a Vacuum Cooler Cooling Product from 90 to 32°F Fig. 7 Pressure, Volume, and Temperature in Vacuum Cooler Cooling Product from 90 to 32°F Fig. 7 Pressure, Volume, and Temperature in Vacuum Cooler Cooling Product from 90 to 32°F Commercial Systems Commercial Systems |
| 401 | Fig. 8 Schematic Cross Sections of Vacuum-Producing Mechanisms Fig. 8 Schematic Cross Sections of Vacuum-Producing Mechanisms Fig. 8 Schematic Cross Sections of Vacuum-Producing Mechanisms Fig. 8 Schematic Cross Sections of Vacuum-Producing Mechanisms Applications Applications Fig. 9 Comparative Cooling of Vegetables Under Similar Vacuum Conditions Fig. 9 Comparative Cooling of Vegetables Under Similar Vacuum Conditions Fig. 9 Comparative Cooling of Vegetables Under Similar Vacuum Conditions Fig. 9 Comparative Cooling of Vegetables Under Similar Vacuum Conditions |
| 402 | Table 5 Cooling Methods Suggested for Horticultural Commodities Table 5 Cooling Methods Suggested for Horticultural Commodities Selecting a Cooling Method Selecting a Cooling Method Cooling Cut Flowers Cooling Cut Flowers Symbols Symbols |
| 403 | References References |
| 404 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 406 | I-P_R10_Ch29 I-P_R10_Ch29 Fig. 1 Typical Freezing Curve Fig. 1 Typical Freezing Curve Fig. 1 Typical Freezing Curve Fig. 1 Typical Freezing Curve Freezing Methods Freezing Methods Blast Freezers Blast Freezers |
| 407 | Cold Storage Rooms Cold Storage Rooms Stationary Blast Cell Freezing Tunnels Stationary Blast Cell Freezing Tunnels Fig. 2 Stationary Blast Cell Fig. 2 Stationary Blast Cell Fig. 2 Stationary Blast Cell Fig. 2 Stationary Blast Cell Push-Through Trolley Freezers Push-Through Trolley Freezers Fig. 3 Push-Through Trolley Freezer Fig. 3 Push-Through Trolley Freezer Fig. 3 Push-Through Trolley Freezer Fig. 3 Push-Through Trolley Freezer Straight Belt Freezers Straight Belt Freezers Fig. 4 Two-Stage Belt Freezer Fig. 4 Two-Stage Belt Freezer Fig. 4 Two-Stage Belt Freezer Fig. 4 Two-Stage Belt Freezer Multipass Straight Belt Freezers Multipass Straight Belt Freezers |
| 408 | Fig. 5 Multipass, Straight Belt Freezer Fig. 5 Multipass, Straight Belt Freezer Fig. 5 Multipass, Straight Belt Freezer Fig. 5 Multipass, Straight Belt Freezer Fluidized Bed Freezers Fluidized Bed Freezers Fig. 6 Fluidized Bed Freezer Fig. 6 Fluidized Bed Freezer Fig. 6 Fluidized Bed Freezer Fig. 6 Fluidized Bed Freezer Fluidized Belt Freezers Fluidized Belt Freezers Fig. 7 Horizontal Airflow Spiral Freezer Fig. 7 Horizontal Airflow Spiral Freezer Fig. 7 Horizontal Airflow Spiral Freezer Fig. 7 Horizontal Airflow Spiral Freezer Spiral Belt Freezers Spiral Belt Freezers |
| 409 | Fig. 8 Vertical Airflow Spiral Freezer Fig. 8 Vertical Airflow Spiral Freezer Fig. 8 Vertical Airflow Spiral Freezer Fig. 8 Vertical Airflow Spiral Freezer Fig. 9 Split Airflow Spiral Freezer Fig. 9 Split Airflow Spiral Freezer Fig. 9 Split Airflow Spiral Freezer Fig. 9 Split Airflow Spiral Freezer Impingement Freezers Impingement Freezers Carton Freezers Carton Freezers Fig. 10 Impingement Freezer Fig. 10 Impingement Freezer Fig. 10 Impingement Freezer Fig. 10 Impingement Freezer Fig. 11 Carton (Carrier) Freezer Fig. 11 Carton (Carrier) Freezer Fig. 11 Carton (Carrier) Freezer Fig. 11 Carton (Carrier) Freezer Contact Freezers Contact Freezers |
| 410 | Fig. 12 1Plate Freezer Fig. 12 1Plate Freezer Fig. 12 Plate Freezer Fig. 12 Plate Freezer Manual and Automatic Plate Freezers Manual and Automatic Plate Freezers Specialized Contact Freezers Specialized Contact Freezers Cryogenic Freezers Cryogenic Freezers Liquid Nitrogen Freezers Liquid Nitrogen Freezers Carbon Dioxide Freezers Carbon Dioxide Freezers Cryomechanical Freezers Cryomechanical Freezers Other Freezer Selection Criteria Other Freezer Selection Criteria Reliability Reliability |
| 411 | Hygiene Hygiene Quality Quality Economics Economics Table 1 Moisture-Carrying Capacity of Air (Saturated) Table 1 Moisture-Carrying Capacity of Air (Saturated) |
| 412 | Refrigeration Systems Refrigeration Systems Operation Operation Maintenance Maintenance Bibliography Bibliography |
| 414 | I-P_R10_Ch30 I-P_R10_Ch30 Fig. 1 Steps of Meat Processing Fig. 1 Steps of Meat Processing Fig. 1 Steps of Meat Processing Fig. 1 Steps of Meat Processing Sanitation Sanitation Role of HACCP Role of HACCP |
| 415 | Carcass Chilling and Holding Carcass Chilling and Holding Spray Chilling Beef Spray Chilling Beef Chilling Time Chilling Time Refrigeration Systems for Coolers Refrigeration Systems for Coolers |
| 416 | Beef Cooler Layout and Capacity Beef Cooler Layout and Capacity |
| 417 | Fig. 2 Deep Round Temperature Measurement in Beef Carcass Fig. 2 Deep Round Temperature Measurement in Beef Carcass Fig. 2 Deep Round Temperature Measurement in Beef Carcass Fig. 2 Deep Round Temperature Measurement in Beef Carcass Fig. 3 Beef Carcass Chill Curves Fig. 3 Beef Carcass Chill Curves Fig. 3 Beef Carcass Chill Curves Fig. 3 Beef Carcass Chill Curves |
| 418 | Fig. 4 Beef Carcass Shrinkage Rate Curves Fig. 4 Beef Carcass Shrinkage Rate Curves Fig. 4 Beef Carcass Shrinkage Rate Curves Fig. 4 Beef Carcass Shrinkage Rate Curves Table 1 Weight Changes in Beef Carcass Table 1 Weight Changes in Beef Carcass |
| 419 | Table 2 Load Calculations for Beef Chilling Table 2 Load Calculations for Beef Chilling Table 3 Load Calculations for Beef Holding Table 3 Load Calculations for Beef Holding |
| 420 | Table 4 Sample Evaporator Installations for Beef Chillinga Table 4 Sample Evaporator Installations for Beef Chillinga Boxed Beef Boxed Beef Fig. 5 Freezing Times of Boneless Meat Fig. 5 Freezing Times of Boneless Meat Fig. 5 Freezing Times of Boneless Meat Fig. 5 Freezing Times of Boneless Meat |
| 421 | Fig. 6 Blast Freezer Loads Fig. 6 Blast Freezer Loads Fig. 6 Blast Freezer Loads Fig. 6 Blast Freezer Loads Hog Chilling and Tempering Hog Chilling and Tempering |
| 422 | Fig. 7 Composite Hog Chilling Time-Temperature Curves Fig. 7 Composite Hog Chilling Time-Temperature Curves Fig. 7 Composite Hog Chilling Time/Temperature Curves Fig. 7 Composite Hog Chilling Time/Temperature Curves Table 5 Product Refrigeration Load, Tons Table 5 Product Refrigeration Load, Tons Table 6 Average Chill Cooler Loads Exclusive of Product Table 6 Average Chill Cooler Loads Exclusive of Product |
| 423 | Pork Trimmings Pork Trimmings Fresh Pork Holding Fresh Pork Holding Calf and Lamb Chilling Calf and Lamb Chilling Chilling and Freezing Variety Meats Chilling and Freezing Variety Meats |
| 424 | Table 7 Storage Life of Meat Products Table 7 Storage Life of Meat Products Packaging and Storage Packaging and Storage Packaged Fresh Cuts Packaged Fresh Cuts Refrigeration Load Computations Refrigeration Load Computations |
| 425 | Processed Meats Processed Meats Table 8 Room Temperatures and Relative Humidities for Smoking Meats Table 8 Room Temperatures and Relative Humidities for Smoking Meats |
| 426 | Bacon Slicing and Packaging Room Bacon Slicing and Packaging Room Sausage Dry Rooms Sausage Dry Rooms |
| 427 | Lard Chilling Lard Chilling |
| 428 | Blast and Storage Freezers Blast and Storage Freezers Direct-Contact Meat Chilling Direct-Contact Meat Chilling |
| 429 | Frozen Meat Products Frozen Meat Products Freezing Quality of Meat Freezing Quality of Meat Effect of Freezing on Quality Effect of Freezing on Quality Storage and Handling Storage and Handling Packaging Packaging |
| 430 | Shipping Docks Shipping Docks Energy Conservation Energy Conservation |
| 431 | References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 432 | I-P_R10_Ch31 I-P_R10_Ch31 Processing Processing Chilling Chilling Fig. 1 Processing Sequence of Fresh Poultry Fig. 1 Processing Sequence of Fresh Poultry Fig. 1 Processing Sequence of Fresh Poultry Fig. 1 Processing Sequence of Fresh Poultry |
| 433 | Fig. 2 Equipment Layout for Live Bird Receiving, Slaughtering, and Defeathering Areas Fig. 2 Equipment Layout for Live Bird Receiving, Slaughtering, and Defeathering Areas Fig. 2 Typical Equipment Layout for Live Bird Receiving, Slaughtering, and Defeathering Areas Fig. 2 Typical Equipment Layout for Live Bird Receiving, Slaughtering, and Defeathering Areas |
| 434 | Fig. 3 Equipment Layout for Eviscerating, Chilling, and Packaging Areas Fig. 3 Equipment Layout for Eviscerating, Chilling, and Packaging Areas Fig. 3 Typical Equipment Layout for Eviscerating, Chilling, and Packaging Areas Fig. 3 Typical Equipment Layout for Eviscerating, Chilling, and Packaging Areas |
| 435 | Fig. 4 Space-Relationship-Flow Diagram for Poultry Processing Plant Fig. 4 Space-Relationship-Flow Diagram for Poultry Processing Plant Fig. 4 Space-Relationship-Flow Diagram for Poultry Processing Plant Fig. 4 Space-Relationship-Flow Diagram for Poultry Processing Plant Fig. 5 Broiler and Coolant Temperatures in Countercurrent Immersion Chiller Fig. 5 Broiler and Coolant Temperatures in Countercurrent Immersion Chiller Fig. 5 Broiler and Coolant Temperatures in Countercurrent Immersion Chiller Fig. 5 Broiler and Coolant Temperatures in Countercurrent Immersion Chiller Fig. 6 One-Tier Evaporative Air Chiller Fig. 6 One-Tier Evaporative Air Chiller Fig. 6 One-Tier Evaporative Air Chiller Fig. 6 One-Tier Evaporative Air Chiller Decontamination of Carcasses Decontamination of Carcasses Further Processing Further Processing |
| 436 | Unit Operations Unit Operations Freezing Freezing Effect on Product Quality Effect on Product Quality |
| 437 | Fig. 7 Meat Products Processing Flow Chart Fig. 7 Meat Products Processing Flow Chart Fig. 7 Meat Products Processing Flow Chart Fig. 7 Meat Products Processing Flow Chart Fig. 8 Heat Processing of Meat Products by Batch Smoker/ Cooker Fig. 8 Heat Processing of Meat Products by Batch Smoker/ Cooker Fig. 8 Heat Processing of Meat Products by Batch Smoker/Cooker Fig. 8 Heat Processing of Meat Products by Batch Smoker/Cooker Freezing Methods Freezing Methods |
| 438 | Fig. 9 Heat Processing of Meat Products by Continuous Smoker/Cooker Fig. 9 Heat Processing of Meat Products by Continuous Smoker/Cooker Fig. 9 Heat Processing of Meat Products by Continuous Smoker/Cooker Fig. 9 Heat Processing of Meat Products by Continuous Smoker/Cooker Fig. 10 Relation Between Freezing Time and Air Velocity Fig. 10 Relation Between Freezing Time and Air Velocity Fig. 10 Relation Between Freezing Time and Air Velocity Fig. 10 Relation Between Freezing Time and Air Velocity Fig. 11 Temperature During Freezing of Packaged, Ready-to-Cook Turkeys Fig. 11 Temperature During Freezing of Packaged, Ready-to-Cook Turkeys Fig. 11 Temperature During Freezing of Packaged, Ready-to-Cook Turkeys Fig. 11 Temperature During Freezing of Packaged, Ready-to-Cook Turkeys Predicting Freezing or Thawing Times Predicting Freezing or Thawing Times Packaging Packaging |
| 439 | Table 1 Thermal Properties of Ready-to-Cook Poultry Table 1 Thermal Properties of Ready-to-Cook Poultry Fig. 12 Temperature During Freezing of Packaged, Ready-to-Cook Turkeys Fig. 12 Temperature During Freezing of Packaged, Ready-to-Cook Turkeys Fig. 12 Temperature During Freezing of Packaged, Ready-to-Cook Turkeys Fig. 12 Temperature During Freezing of Packaged, Ready-to-Cook Turkeys Fig. 13 Temperatures at Various Depths in Breast of 15 lb Turkeys During Immersion Freezing at -20°F Fig. 13 Temperatures at Various Depths in Breast of 15 lb Turkeys During Immersion Freezing at -20°F Fig. 13 Temperatures at Various Depths in Breast of 15 lb Turkeys During Immersion Freezing at –20°F Fig. 13 Temperatures at Various Depths in Breast of 15 lb Turkeys During Immersion Freezing at –20°F Airflow Systems in Poultry Processing Plants Airflow Systems in Poultry Processing Plants Fig. 14 Air Movement Pattern in Positively-Pressurized Poultry Processing Plant Fig. 14 Air Movement Pattern in Positively-Pressurized Poultry Processing Plant Fig. 14 Air Movement Pattern in Positively Pressurized Poultry Processing Plant Fig. 14 Air Movement Pattern in Positively Pressurized Poultry Processing Plant |
| 440 | Airflow System Consideration During Renovation Airflow System Consideration During Renovation Plant Sanitation Plant Sanitation HACCP Systems in Poultry Processing HACCP Systems in Poultry Processing Tenderness Control Tenderness Control |
| 441 | Distribution and Retail Holding Refrigeration Distribution and Retail Holding Refrigeration Preserving Quality in Storage and Marketing Preserving Quality in Storage and Marketing |
| 442 | Thawing Thawing References References |
| 443 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 444 | I-P_R10_Ch32 I-P_R10_Ch32 Fresh Fishery Products Fresh Fishery Products Care Aboard Vessels Care Aboard Vessels Icing Icing |
| 445 | Fig. 1 Cooling Rate of Properly and Improperly Iced Haddock Fig. 1 Cooling Rate of Properly and Improperly Iced Haddock Fig. 1 Cooling Rate of Properly and Improperly Iced Haddock Fig. 1 Cooling Rate of Properly and Improperly Iced Haddock Saltwater Icing Saltwater Icing Use of Preservatives Use of Preservatives Storage of Fish in Refrigerated Seawater Storage of Fish in Refrigerated Seawater Boxing at Sea Boxing at Sea Shore Plant Procedure and Marketing Shore Plant Procedure and Marketing |
| 446 | Table 1 Organoleptic Quality Criteria for Fish Table 1 Organoleptic Quality Criteria for Fish Packaging Fresh Fish Packaging Fresh Fish Fresh Fish Storage Fresh Fish Storage |
| 447 | Table 2 Optimal Radiation Dose Levels and Shelf Life at 33°F for Some Species of Fish and Shellfish Table 2 Optimal Radiation Dose Levels and Shelf Life at 33°F for Some Species of Fish and Shellfish Irradiation of Fresh Seafood Irradiation of Fresh Seafood Modified-Atmosphere (MA) Packaging Modified-Atmosphere (MA) Packaging Frozen Fishery Products Frozen Fishery Products Packaging Packaging Package Considerations in Freezing Package Considerations in Freezing |
| 448 | Package Considerations for Frozen Storage Package Considerations for Frozen Storage Types of Packages Types of Packages Freezing Methods Freezing Methods Blast Freezing Blast Freezing |
| 449 | Fig. 2 Freezing Time of Fish Fillets and Fish Sticks in Tunnel Blast Freezer (Air Velocity 500 to 1000 fpm) Fig. 2 Freezing Time of Fish Fillets and Fish Sticks in Tunnel Blast Freezer (Air Velocity 500 to 1000 fpm) Fig. 2 Freezing Time of Fish Fillets and Fish Sticks in Tunnel Blast Freezer Fig. 2 Freezing Time of Fish Fillets and Fish Sticks in Tunnel Blast Freezer Plate Freezing Plate Freezing Fig. 3 Freezing Time of Fish Fillets and Fish Sticks in Plate Freezer Fig. 3 Freezing Time of Fish Fillets and Fish Sticks in Plate Freezer Fig. 3 Freezing Time of Fish Fillets and Fish Sticks in Plate Freezer Fig. 3 Freezing Time of Fish Fillets and Fish Sticks in Plate Freezer Immersion Freezing Immersion Freezing |
| 450 | Fig. 4 Freezing Time for Tuna Immersed in Brine Fig. 4 Freezing Time for Tuna Immersed in Brine Fig. 4 Freezing Time for Tuna Immersed in Brine Fig. 4 Freezing Time for Tuna Immersed in Brine Freezing Fish at Sea Freezing Fish at Sea Storage of Frozen Fish Storage of Frozen Fish Composition Composition Storage Conditions Storage Conditions |
| 451 | Table 3 Relative Susceptibility of Representative Species of Fish to Oxidative Changes in Frozen Storage Table 3 Relative Susceptibility of Representative Species of Fish to Oxidative Changes in Frozen Storage Table 4 Effect of Storage Temperature on Shelf Life of Frozen Fishery Products Table 4 Effect of Storage Temperature on Shelf Life of Frozen Fishery Products Packaging and Glazing Packaging and Glazing Space Requirements Space Requirements |
| 452 | Table 5 Storage Conditions and Storage Life of Frozen Fish Table 5 Storage Conditions and Storage Life of Frozen Fish Table 6 Space Requirements for Frozen Fishery Products Table 6 Space Requirements for Frozen Fishery Products Transportation and Marketing Transportation and Marketing Bibliography Bibliography |
| 454 | I-P_R10_Ch33 I-P_R10_Ch33 Milk Production and Processing Milk Production and Processing Handling Milk at the Dairy Handling Milk at the Dairy Receiving and Storing Milk Receiving and Storing Milk |
| 455 | Separation and Clarification Separation and Clarification Table 1 U.S. Requirements for Milkfat and Nonfat Solids in Milks and Creams Table 1 U.S. Requirements for Milkfat and Nonfat Solids in Milks and Creams Pasteurization and Homogenization Pasteurization and Homogenization |
| 456 | Fig. 1 Flow Diagram of Plate HTST Pasteurizer with Vacuum Chamber Fig. 1 Flow Diagram of Plate HTST Pasteurizer with Vacuum Chamber Fig. 1 Flow Diagram of Plate HTST Pasteurizer with Vacuum Chamber Fig. 1 Flow Diagram of Plate HTST Pasteurizer with Vacuum Chamber |
| 457 | Packaging Milk Products Packaging Milk Products Equipment Cleaning Equipment Cleaning Milk Storage and Distribution Milk Storage and Distribution |
| 458 | Half-and-Half and Cream Half-and-Half and Cream Buttermilk, Sour Cream, and Yogurt Buttermilk, Sour Cream, and Yogurt Refrigeration Refrigeration |
| 459 | Butter Manufacture Butter Manufacture Separation and Pasteurization Separation and Pasteurization Churning Churning |
| 460 | Fig. 2 Thermal Behavior of Cream Heated to 167°F Followed by Rapid Cooling to 86°F and to 50.7°F; Comparison with Cream Heated to 122°F, then Rapid Cooling to 88.5°F and to 53.6°F Fig. 2 Thermal Behavior of Cream Heated to 167°F Followed by Rapid Cooling to 86°F and to 50.7°F; Comparison with Cream Heated to 122°F, then Rapid Cooling to 88.5°F and to 53.6°F Fig. 2 Thermal Behavior of Cream Heated to 167°F Followed by Rapid Cooling to 86°F and to 50.7°F; Comparison with Cream Heated to 122°F, then Rapid Cooling to 88.5°F and to 53.6°F Fig. 2 Thermal Behavior of Cream Heated to 167°F Followed by Rapid Cooling to 86°F and to 50.7°F; Comparison with Cream Heated to 122°F, then Rapid Cooling to 88.5°F and to 53.6°F Table 2 Heat Liberated from Fat in Cream Cooled Rapidly from about 86°F to Various Temperatures Table 2 Heat Liberated from Fat in Cream Cooled Rapidly from about 86°F to Various Temperatures Fig. 3 Heat Liberated from Fat in Cream Cooled Rapidly from Approximately 86°F to Various Temperatures Fig. 3 Heat Liberated from Fat in Cream Cooled Rapidly from Approximately 86°F to Various Temperatures Fig. 3 Heat Liberated from Fat in Cream Cooled Rapidly from Approximately 86°F to Various Temperatures Fig. 3 Heat Liberated from Fat in Cream Cooled Rapidly from Approximately 86°F to Various Temperatures |
| 461 | Continuous Churning Continuous Churning Packaging Butter Packaging Butter Fig. 4 Flow Diagram of Continuous Butter Manufacture Fig. 4 Flow Diagram of Continuous Butter Manufacture Fig. 4 Flow Diagram of Continuous Butter Manufacture Fig. 4 Flow Diagram of Continuous Butter Manufacture Table 3 Specific Heats of Milk and Milk Derivatives, Btu/lb · °F Table 3 Specific Heats of Milk and Milk Derivatives, Btu/lb · °F Deterioration of Butter in Storage Deterioration of Butter in Storage |
| 462 | Total Refrigeration Load Total Refrigeration Load Fig. 5 Butter Flow Diagram Fig. 5 Butter Flow Diagram Fig. 5 Butter Flow Diagram Fig. 5 Butter Flow Diagram Whipped Butter Whipped Butter |
| 463 | Cheese Manufacture Cheese Manufacture Cheddar Cheese Cheddar Cheese |
| 464 | Fig. 6 Shrinkage of Cheese in Storage Fig. 6 Shrinkage of Cheese in Storage Fig. 6 Cheese Shrinkage in Storage Fig. 6 Cheese Shrinkage in Storage Provolone and Mozzarella (Pasta Filata Types) Provolone and Mozzarella (Pasta Filata Types) Table 4 Swiss Cheese Manufacturing Conditions Table 4 Swiss Cheese Manufacturing Conditions Swiss Cheese Swiss Cheese Roquefort and Blue Cheese Roquefort and Blue Cheese |
| 465 | Table 5 Typical Blue Cheese Manufacturing Conditions Table 5 Typical Blue Cheese Manufacturing Conditions Cottage Cheese Cottage Cheese Other Cheeses Other Cheeses Refrigerating Cheese Rooms Refrigerating Cheese Rooms |
| 466 | Table 6 Curing Temperature, Humidity, and Time of Some Cheese Varieties Table 6 Curing Temperature, Humidity, and Time of Some Cheese Varieties Table 7 Temperature Range of Storage for Common Types of Cheese Table 7 Temperature Range of Storage for Common Types of Cheese Frozen Dairy Desserts Frozen Dairy Desserts Ice Cream Ice Cream |
| 467 | Ice Milk Ice Milk Soft Ice Milk or Ice Cream Soft Ice Milk or Ice Cream Frozen Yogurt Frozen Yogurt Sherbets Sherbets Ices Ices Making Ice Cream Mix Making Ice Cream Mix |
| 468 | Freezing Freezing |
| 469 | Table 8 Freezing Points of Typical Ice Creams, Sherbet, and Ice Table 8 Freezing Points of Typical Ice Creams, Sherbet, and Ice Table 9 Freezing Behavior of Typical Ice Cream* Table 9 Freezing Behavior of Typical Ice Cream* |
| 471 | Table 10 Continuous Freezing Loads for Typical Ice Cream Mix Table 10 Continuous Freezing Loads for Typical Ice Cream Mix Table 11 Hardening Loads for Typical Ice Cream Mix Table 11 Hardening Loads for Typical Ice Cream Mix Ice Cream Bars and Other Novelties Ice Cream Bars and Other Novelties |
| 472 | Refrigeration Compressor Equipment Selection and Operation Refrigeration Compressor Equipment Selection and Operation Ultrahigh-Temperature (UHT) Sterilization and Aseptic Packaging (AP) Ultrahigh-Temperature (UHT) Sterilization and Aseptic Packaging (AP) Sterilization Methods and Equipment Sterilization Methods and Equipment |
| 473 | Aseptic Packaging Aseptic Packaging |
| 474 | Quality Control Quality Control Heat-Labile Nutrients Heat-Labile Nutrients Evaporated, Sweetened Condensed, and Dry Milk Evaporated, Sweetened Condensed, and Dry Milk Evaporated Milk Evaporated Milk |
| 475 | Table 12 Inversion Times for Cases of Evaporated Milk in Storage Table 12 Inversion Times for Cases of Evaporated Milk in Storage Sweetened Condensed Milk Sweetened Condensed Milk Table 13 Typical Steam Requirements for Evaporating Water from Milk Table 13 Typical Steam Requirements for Evaporating Water from Milk Dry Milk and Nonfat Dry Milk Dry Milk and Nonfat Dry Milk |
| 476 | Drum Drying Drum Drying References References |
| 477 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 478 | I-P_R10_Ch34 I-P_R10_Ch34 Shell Eggs Shell Eggs Egg Structure and Composition Egg Structure and Composition Physical Structure Physical Structure Fig. 1 Structure of an Egg Fig. 1 Structure of an Egg Fig. 1 Structure of an Egg Fig. 1 Structure of an Egg Table 1 Physical Properties of Chicken Eggs Table 1 Physical Properties of Chicken Eggs |
| 479 | Chemical Composition Chemical Composition Nutritive Value Nutritive Value Table 2 Composition of Whole Egg Table 2 Composition of Whole Egg Egg Quality and Safety Egg Quality and Safety Quality Grades and Weight Classes Quality Grades and Weight Classes Table 3 U.S. Standards for Quality of Shell Eggs Table 3 U.S. Standards for Quality of Shell Eggs |
| 480 | Table 4 U.S. Egg Weight Classes for Consumer Grades Table 4 U.S. Egg Weight Classes for Consumer Grades Quality Factors Quality Factors |
| 481 | Control and Preservation of Quality Control and Preservation of Quality Egg Spoilage and Safety Egg Spoilage and Safety In-Shell Egg Pasteurization In-Shell Egg Pasteurization |
| 482 | HACCP Plan for Shell Eggs HACCP Plan for Shell Eggs Shell Egg Processing Shell Egg Processing Off-Line and In-Line Processing Off-Line and In-Line Processing Fig. 2 Unit Operations in Off-Line and In-Line Egg Packaging Fig. 2 Unit Operations in Off-Line and In-Line Egg Packaging Fig. 2 Unit Operations in Off-Line and In-Line Egg Packaging Fig. 2 Unit Operations in Off-Line and In-Line Egg Packaging Effect of Refrigeration on Egg Quality and Safety Effect of Refrigeration on Egg Quality and Safety |
| 483 | Fig. 3 Off-Line Egg Processing Operation Fig. 3 Off-Line Egg Processing Operation Fig. 3 Off-Line Egg Processing Operation Fig. 3 Off-Line Egg Processing Operation Fig. 4 Typical In-Line Processing Operation Fig. 4 Typical In-Line Processing Operation Fig. 4 Typical In-Line Processing Operation Fig. 4 Typical In-Line Processing Operation |
| 484 | Refrigeration Requirement Issues Refrigeration Requirement Issues Fig. 5 Material Flow in Off-Line Operation Fig. 5 Material Flow in Off-Line Operation Fig. 5 Material Flow in Off-Line Operation Fig. 5 Material Flow in Off-Line Operation Condensation on Eggs Condensation on Eggs Table 5 Ambient Conditions When Moisture Condenses on Cold Eggs Table 5 Ambient Conditions When Moisture Condenses on Cold Eggs Initial Egg Temperatures Initial Egg Temperatures |
| 485 | Egg Temperatures After Processing Egg Temperatures After Processing Cooling Rates Cooling Rates Cooling for Storage Cooling for Storage Accelerated Cooling Methods Accelerated Cooling Methods Packaging Packaging Transportation Transportation |
| 486 | Fig. 6 Floor Plan and Material Flow in Large Egg Breaking Plant Fig. 6 Floor Plan and Material Flow in Large Egg Breaking Plant Fig. 6 Floor Plan and Material Flow in Large Egg-Breaking Plant Fig. 6 Floor Plan and Material Flow in Large Egg-Breaking Plant Egg Products Egg Products Egg Breaking Egg Breaking |
| 487 | Table 6 Minimum Cooling and Temperature Requirements for Liquid Egg Products Table 6 Minimum Cooling and Temperature Requirements for Liquid Egg Products Holding Temperatures Holding Temperatures Pasteurization Pasteurization Table 7 Pasteurization Requirements of Various Egg Products Table 7 Pasteurization Requirements of Various Egg Products Table 8 Minimum Pasteurization Requirements in Various Countries Table 8 Minimum Pasteurization Requirements in Various Countries Yields Yields |
| 488 | Fig. 7 Effect of pH on Pasteurization Temperature of Egg White Fig. 7 Effect of pH on Pasteurization Temperature of Egg White Fig. 7 Effect of pH on Pasteurization Temperature of Egg White Fig. 7 Effect of pH on Pasteurization Temperature of Egg White Fig. 8 Thermal Destruction Curves of Several Egg Products Fig. 8 Thermal Destruction Curves of Several Egg Products Fig. 8 Thermal Destruction Curves of Several Egg Products Fig. 8 Thermal Destruction Curves of Several Egg Products Table 9 Liquid and Solid Yields From Shell Eggs Table 9 Liquid and Solid Yields From Shell Eggs Refrigerated Liquid Egg Products Refrigerated Liquid Egg Products Chilled Egg Products Chilled Egg Products Frozen Egg Products Frozen Egg Products Dehydrated Egg Products Dehydrated Egg Products |
| 489 | Fig. 9 Steps in Egg Product Drying Fig. 9 Steps in Egg Product Drying Fig. 9 Steps in Egg Product Drying Fig. 9 Steps in Egg Product Drying Egg Product Quality Egg Product Quality |
| 490 | Sanitary Standards and Plant Sanitation Sanitary Standards and Plant Sanitation HACCP Program for Egg Products HACCP Program for Egg Products References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 492 | I-P_R10_Ch35 I-P_R10_Ch35 Fruit Storage and Handling Considerations Fruit Storage and Handling Considerations Quality and Maturity Quality and Maturity Handling and Harvesting Handling and Harvesting Storage and Transportation Storage and Transportation Apples Apples |
| 493 | Table 1 Summary of Controlled Atmosphere Requirements and Recommendations for Fruits Other Than Apples and Pears Table 1 Summary of Controlled Atmosphere Requirements and Recommendations for Fruits Other Than Apples and Pears |
| 494 | Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Storage Diseases and Deterioration Storage Diseases and Deterioration Table 2 Optimum Levels for Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Apples Table 2 Optimum Levels for Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Apples |
| 497 | Pears Pears |
| 498 | Table 3 Commercial Controlled Atmosphere Conditions for Pear Varietiesa Table 3 Commercial Controlled Atmosphere Conditions for Pear Varietiesa Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Storage Diseases and Deterioration Storage Diseases and Deterioration |
| 499 | Grapes Grapes Cooling and Storage Cooling and Storage Fumigation Fumigation |
| 501 | Table 4 Factors for Determining Amount of SO2 Needed for Forced-Air Fumigation Using Total Utilization System Table 4 Factors for Determining Amount of SO2 Needed for Forced-Air Fumigation Using Total Utilization System Table 5 Factors for Determining Amount of SO2 Needed for Storage Room Fumigation Table 5 Factors for Determining Amount of SO2 Needed for Storage Room Fumigation Diseases Diseases |
| 502 | Storage Life Storage Life Refrigeration System Materials and Practices Refrigeration System Materials and Practices Table 6 Storage Life of California Table Grapes at 32°F Table 6 Storage Life of California Table Grapes at 32°F Table 7 Storage Life of Labrusca Grapes at 32°F Table 7 Storage Life of Labrusca Grapes at 32°F Maintenance and Operation Maintenance and Operation Plums Plums Storage Diseases and Deterioration Storage Diseases and Deterioration |
| 503 | Sweet Cherries Sweet Cherries Harvesting Techniques Harvesting Techniques Cooling Cooling Storage Storage Diseases Diseases Peaches and Nectarines Peaches and Nectarines Storage Varieties Storage Varieties Harvest Techniques Harvest Techniques Cooling Cooling Storage Storage |
| 504 | Diseases Diseases Apricots Apricots Diseases and Deterioration Diseases and Deterioration Berries Berries Diseases Diseases Strawberries Strawberries Diseases Diseases Figs Figs Diseases Diseases Supplements to Refrigeration Supplements to Refrigeration Antiseptic Washes Antiseptic Washes |
| 505 | Protective Packaging Protective Packaging Selective Marketing Selective Marketing Heat Treatment Heat Treatment Fungicides Fungicides Irradiation Irradiation References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 506 | I-P_R10_Ch36 I-P_R10_Ch36 Citrus Fruit Citrus Fruit Maturity and Quality Maturity and Quality Harvesting and Packing Harvesting and Packing Picking Picking Fig. 1 Approximate Commercial Shipping Season for U.S. Citrus Fig. 1 Approximate Commercial Shipping Season for U.S. Citrus Fig. 1 Approximate Commercial Shipping Season for U.S. Citrus Fig. 1 Approximate Commercial Shipping Season for U.S. Citrus |
| 507 | Handling Handling Accelerated Coloring or Sweating Accelerated Coloring or Sweating Color-Added Treatment Color-Added Treatment Cooling Cooling |
| 508 | Transportation Transportation Storage Storage Oranges Oranges Table 1 Quarantine Treatment of Citrus Fruit for Caribbean Fruit Fly Table 1 Quarantine Treatment of Citrus Fruit for Caribbean Fruit Fly Grapefruit Grapefruit Lemons Lemons Table 2 Heat of Respiration of Citrus Fruit Table 2 Heat of Respiration of Citrus Fruit |
| 509 | Specialty Citrus Fruit Specialty Citrus Fruit Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Controlled-Atmosphere Storage Storage Disorders and Control Storage Disorders and Control Postharvest Diseases Postharvest Diseases Physiological Disturbances Physiological Disturbances |
| 510 | Bananas Bananas Harvesting and Transportation Harvesting and Transportation Diseases and Deterioration Diseases and Deterioration Exposure to Excessive Temperatures Exposure to Excessive Temperatures Wholesale Processing Facilities Wholesale Processing Facilities Fig. 2 Banana Room (Side View) Fig. 2 Banana Room (Side View) Fig. 2 Banana Room (Side View) Fig. 2 Banana Room (Side View) |
| 511 | Airtightness Airtightness Refrigeration Refrigeration Fig. 3 Three-Tier Forklift Banana Room (End View) Fig. 3 Three-Tier Forklift Banana Room (End View) Fig. 3 Three-Tier Forklift Banana Room (End View) Fig. 3 Three-Tier Forklift Banana Room (End View) Refrigeration Load Calculations Refrigeration Load Calculations Heating Heating Air Circulation Air Circulation Airflow Requirements Airflow Requirements |
| 512 | Table 3 Fruit Temperatures for Banana Ripening Table 3 Fruit Temperatures for Banana Ripening Humidity Humidity Controls Controls Fig. 4 Heat of Respiration During Banana Ripening Fig. 4 Heat of Respiration During Banana Ripening Fig. 4 Heat of Respiration During Banana Ripening Fig. 4 Heat of Respiration During Banana Ripening |
| 513 | Subtropical Fruit Subtropical Fruit Avocados Avocados Storage Disorders Storage Disorders Mangoes Mangoes Storage Disorders Storage Disorders Pineapples Pineapples Storage Disorders Storage Disorders References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 514 | I-P_R10_Ch37 I-P_R10_Ch37 Product Selection and Quality Maintenance Product Selection and Quality Maintenance Postharvest Handling Postharvest Handling |
| 515 | Cooling Cooling Protective Packaging and Waxing Protective Packaging and Waxing In-Transit Preservation In-Transit Preservation Cooling Vehicle and Product Cooling Vehicle and Product Packaging, Loading, and Handling Packaging, Loading, and Handling Providing Refrigeration and Air Circulation Providing Refrigeration and Air Circulation |
| 516 | Table 1 Optimal Transit Temperatures for Various Vegetables Table 1 Optimal Transit Temperatures for Various Vegetables Protection from Cold Protection from Cold Checking and Cleaning Equipment Checking and Cleaning Equipment Modified Atmospheres in Transit Modified Atmospheres in Transit Preservation in Destination Facilities Preservation in Destination Facilities |
| 517 | Table 2 Compatible Produce for Long-Distance Transport Table 2 Compatible Produce for Long-Distance Transport |
| 518 | Table 3 Compatible Fresh Fruits and Vegetables During 7 Day Storage Wholesale and Retail Handling Operations Table 3 Compatible Fresh Fruits and Vegetables During 7 Day Storage Wholesale and Retail Handling Operations Refrigerated Storage Considerations Refrigerated Storage Considerations Sprout Inhibitors Sprout Inhibitors |
| 519 | Controlled- and Modified-Atmosphere Storage Controlled- and Modified-Atmosphere Storage Table 4 Vegetables Susceptible to Chilling Injury at Moderately Low but Nonfreezing Temperatures Table 4 Vegetables Susceptible to Chilling Injury at Moderately Low but Nonfreezing Temperatures Injury Injury Storage of Various Vegetables Storage of Various Vegetables Artichokes, Globe (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Artichokes, Globe (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) |
| 520 | Asparagus (32 to 36°F and 95 to 100% rh) Asparagus (32 to 36°F and 95 to 100% rh) Table 5 Notes on Diseases of General Occurrence Table 5 Notes on Diseases of General Occurrence Beans, Green or Snap (40 to 45°F and 95% rh) Beans, Green or Snap (40 to 45°F and 95% rh) Beans, Lima (37 to 41°F and 95% rh) Beans, Lima (37 to 41°F and 95% rh) Beets (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Beets (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) |
| 521 | Broccoli (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Broccoli (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Brussels Sprouts (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Brussels Sprouts (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Cabbage (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Cabbage (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Carrots (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Carrots (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Cauliflower (32°F and 95% rh) Cauliflower (32°F and 95% rh) |
| 522 | Celery (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Celery (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Corn, Sweet (32°F and 95 to 98% rh) Corn, Sweet (32°F and 95 to 98% rh) Cucumbers (50 to 55°F and 95% rh) Cucumbers (50 to 55°F and 95% rh) Eggplants (46 to 54°F and 90 to 95% rh) Eggplants (46 to 54°F and 90 to 95% rh) |
| 523 | Endive and Escarole (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Endive and Escarole (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Garlic, Dry (32°F and 65 to 70% rh) Garlic, Dry (32°F and 65 to 70% rh) Greens, Leafy (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Greens, Leafy (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Lettuce (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Lettuce (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Melons Melons |
| 524 | Mushrooms (32°F and 95% rh) Mushrooms (32°F and 95% rh) Okra (45 to 50°F and 90 to 95% rh) Okra (45 to 50°F and 90 to 95% rh) Onions (32°F and 65 to 70% rh) Onions (32°F and 65 to 70% rh) |
| 525 | Parsley (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Parsley (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Parsnips (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Parsnips (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Peas, Green (32°F and 95 to 98% rh) Peas, Green (32°F and 95 to 98% rh) Peas, Southern (40 to 41°F and 95% rh) Peas, Southern (40 to 41°F and 95% rh) Peppers, Dry Chili or Hot Peppers, Dry Chili or Hot Peppers, Sweet (45 to 55°F and 90 to 95% rh) Peppers, Sweet (45 to 55°F and 90 to 95% rh) Potatoes (Temperature, see following; 90 to 95% rh) Potatoes (Temperature, see following; 90 to 95% rh) |
| 526 | Pumpkins and Squash Pumpkins and Squash Radishes (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) Radishes (32°F and 95 to 100% rh) |
| 527 | Rhubarb (32°F and 95% rh) Rhubarb (32°F and 95% rh) Rutabagas (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Rutabagas (32°F and 98 to 100% rh) Spinach (32°F and 95 to 98% rh) Spinach (32°F and 95 to 98% rh) Sweet Potatoes (55 to 60°F, 85 to 90% rh) Sweet Potatoes (55 to 60°F, 85 to 90% rh) Tomatoes (Mature Green, 55 to 70°F; Ripe, 50°F; 90 to 95% rh) Tomatoes (Mature Green, 55 to 70°F; Ripe, 50°F; 90 to 95% rh) |
| 528 | Turnips (32°F and 95% rh) Turnips (32°F and 95% rh) References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 530 | I-P_R10_Ch38 I-P_R10_Ch38 Orange Juice Orange Juice Orange Concentrate Orange Concentrate Selecting, Handling, and Processing Fresh Fruit Selecting, Handling, and Processing Fresh Fruit |
| 531 | Fig. 1 Citrus Processing Schematic Fig. 1 Citrus Processing Schematic Fig. 1 Citrus Processing Schematic Fig. 1 Citrus Processing Schematic Cold Storage Cold Storage |
| 532 | Concentration Methods Concentration Methods Thermally Accelerated Short-Time Evaporator (TASTE) Thermally Accelerated Short-Time Evaporator (TASTE) Fig. 2 Thermally Accelerated Short-Time Evaporator (TASTE) Schematic Fig. 2 Thermally Accelerated Short-Time Evaporator (TASTE) Schematic Fig. 2 Thermally Accelerated Short-Time Evaporator (TASTE) Schematic Fig. 2 Thermally Accelerated Short-Time Evaporator (TASTE) Schematic Freeze Concentration Freeze Concentration |
| 533 | Quality Control Quality Control Chilled Juice Chilled Juice |
| 534 | Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Equipment Refrigeration Equipment Refrigeration Loads Refrigeration Loads Compressor Manifolding Compressor Manifolding Pure Fruit Juice Powders Pure Fruit Juice Powders |
| 535 | Other Citrus Juices Other Citrus Juices Grapefruit Juice Grapefruit Juice Blended Grapefruit and Orange Juice Blended Grapefruit and Orange Juice Tangerine Juice Tangerine Juice Noncitrus Juices Noncitrus Juices Pineapple Juice Pineapple Juice Apple Juice Apple Juice Grape Juice Grape Juice Concord Grapes Concord Grapes |
| 536 | Muscadines Muscadines Strawberry and Other Berry Juices Strawberry and Other Berry Juices |
| 538 | I-P_ R10_Ch39 I-P_ R10_Ch39 Breweries Breweries Malting Malting Process Aspects Process Aspects |
| 539 | Fig. 1 Brewery Flow Diagram Fig. 1 Brewery Flow Diagram Fig. 1 Brewery Flow Diagram Fig. 1 Brewery Flow Diagram Table 1 Total Solids in Wort Table 1 Total Solids in Wort |
| 540 | Processing Processing Wort Cooling Wort Cooling |
| 541 | Fermenting Cellar Fermenting Cellar Fermenting Cellar Refrigeration Fermenting Cellar Refrigeration Fig. 2 Solids Conversion Rate Fig. 2 Solids Conversion Rate Fig. 2 Solids Conversion Rate Fig. 2 Solids Conversion Rate |
| 542 | Stock Cellar Stock Cellar Fig. 3 Continuous Aging Gravity Flow Fig. 3 Continuous Aging Gravity Flow Fig. 3 Continuous Aging Gravity Flow Fig. 3 Continuous Aging Gravity Flow Kraeusen Cellar Kraeusen Cellar Finishing Operations Finishing Operations |
| 543 | Outdoor Storage Tanks Outdoor Storage Tanks Hop Storage Hop Storage Yeast Culture Room Yeast Culture Room Pasteurization Pasteurization Carbon Dioxide Carbon Dioxide Collection Collection |
| 544 | Liquefaction Liquefaction Fig. 4 Typical Arrangement of CO2 Collecting System Fig. 4 Typical Arrangement of CO2 Collecting System Fig. 4 Typical Arrangement of CO2 Collecting System Fig. 4 Typical Arrangement of CO2 Collecting System CO2 Storage and Reevaporation CO2 Storage and Reevaporation Heat Balance Heat Balance Common Refrigeration Systems Common Refrigeration Systems |
| 545 | Vinegar Production Vinegar Production Wine Making Wine Making Must Cooling Must Cooling |
| 546 | Heat Treatment of Red Musts Heat Treatment of Red Musts Juice Cooling Juice Cooling Heat Treatment of Juices Heat Treatment of Juices Fermentation Temperature Control Fermentation Temperature Control |
| 547 | Potassium Bitartrate Crystallization Potassium Bitartrate Crystallization Storage Temperature Control Storage Temperature Control Chill-Proofing Brandies Chill-Proofing Brandies Carbonated Beverages Carbonated Beverages Table 2 Volume of CO2 Gas Absorbed in One Volume of Water Table 2 Volume of CO2 Gas Absorbed in One Volume of Water |
| 548 | Beverage and Water Coolers Beverage and Water Coolers Refrigeration Plant Refrigeration Plant Refrigeration Load Refrigeration Load Size of Plant Size of Plant |
| 549 | Liquid Carbon Dioxide Storage Liquid Carbon Dioxide Storage References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 550 | I-P_R10_Ch40 I-P_R10_Ch40 Main Dishes, Meals Main Dishes, Meals General Plant Characteristics General Plant Characteristics Preparation, Processing, Unit Operations Preparation, Processing, Unit Operations |
| 551 | Assembly, Filling, and Packaging Assembly, Filling, and Packaging Cooling, Freezing, Casing Cooling, Freezing, Casing |
| 552 | Finished Goods Storage and Shipping Finished Goods Storage and Shipping Refrigeration Loads Refrigeration Loads Refrigeration Systems Refrigeration Systems Plant Internal Environment Plant Internal Environment Vegetables Vegetables |
| 553 | International Production International Production Vegetables in Other Prepared Foods Vegetables in Other Prepared Foods Refrigeration Loads and Systems Refrigeration Loads and Systems |
| 554 | Fruits Fruits Refrigeration Loads and Systems Refrigeration Loads and Systems Potato Products Potato Products French Fries French Fries |
| 555 | Formed Potato Products Formed Potato Products Hash Brown Potatoes Hash Brown Potatoes Refrigeration Loads and Systems Refrigeration Loads and Systems Other Prepared Foods Other Prepared Foods |
| 556 | Long-Term Storage Long-Term Storage Bibliography Bibliography |
| 558 | I-P_R10_Ch41 I-P_R10_Ch41 Ingredient Storage Ingredient Storage |
| 559 | Mixing Mixing Mixers Mixers Dough Systems Dough Systems |
| 560 | Table 1 Size of Condensing Units for Various Mixers Table 1 Size of Condensing Units for Various Mixers Dough Cooling Dough Cooling Fermentation Fermentation Bread Makeup Bread Makeup |
| 561 | Final Proof Final Proof Baking Baking Bread Cooling Bread Cooling |
| 562 | Fig. 1 Moisture Loss and Air Temperature Rise in Counterflow Bread-Cooling Tunnel Fig. 1 Moisture Loss and Air Temperature Rise in Counterflow Bread-Cooling Tunnel Fig. 1 Moisture Loss and Air Temperature Rise in Counterflow Bread-Cooling Tunnel Fig. 1 Moisture Loss and Air Temperature Rise in Counterflow Bread-Cooling Tunnel Slicing and Wrapping Slicing and Wrapping Bread Freezing Bread Freezing |
| 563 | Fig. 2 Core and Crust Temperatures in Freezing Bread Fig. 2 Core and Crust Temperatures in Freezing Bread Fig. 2 Core and Crust Temperatures in Freezing Bread Fig. 2 Core and Crust Temperatures in Freezing Bread Table 2 Important Heat Data for Baking Applications Table 2 Important Heat Data for Baking Applications Freezing Other Bakery Products Freezing Other Bakery Products Frozen Pre-Proofed Bakery Products Frozen Pre-Proofed Bakery Products |
| 564 | Retarding Doughs and Batters Retarding Doughs and Batters Choice of Refrigerants Choice of Refrigerants References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 566 | I-P_R10_Ch42 I-P_R10_Ch42 Candy Manufacture Candy Manufacture Milk and Dark Chocolate Milk and Dark Chocolate Table 1 Optimum Design Air Conditionsa Table 1 Optimum Design Air Conditionsa |
| 567 | Hand Dipping and Enrobing Hand Dipping and Enrobing Bar Candy Bar Candy |
| 568 | Hard Candy Hard Candy Hot Rooms Hot Rooms Cold Rooms Cold Rooms |
| 569 | Cooling Tunnels Cooling Tunnels Coating Kettles or Pans Coating Kettles or Pans Packing Rooms Packing Rooms Refrigeration Plant Refrigeration Plant |
| 570 | Storage Storage Candy Candy Table 2 Expected Storage Life for Candy Table 2 Expected Storage Life for Candy Color Color |
| 571 | Flavor Flavor Texture Texture Insects Insects Storage Temperature Storage Temperature |
| 572 | Humidity Requirements Humidity Requirements Nuts Nuts Temperature Temperature Relative Humidity Relative Humidity Atmosphere Atmosphere Packaging Packaging Dried Fruits and Vegetables Dried Fruits and Vegetables |
| 573 | Dried Fruit Storage Dried Fruit Storage Dried Vegetable Storage Dried Vegetable Storage Controlled Atmosphere Controlled Atmosphere |
| 574 | I-P_R10_Ch43 I-P_R10_Ch43 Ice Makers Ice Makers Flake Ice Flake Ice Fig. 1 Flake Ice Maker Fig. 1 Flake Ice Maker Fig. 1 Flake Ice Maker Fig. 1 Flake Ice Maker Fig. 2 Disk Flake Ice Maker Fig. 2 Disk Flake Ice Maker Fig. 2 Disk Flake Ice Maker Fig. 2 Disk Flake Ice Maker |
| 575 | Tubular Ice Tubular Ice Fig. 3 Tubular Ice Maker Fig. 3 Tubular Ice Maker Fig. 3 Tubular Ice Maker Fig. 3 Tubular Ice Maker Plate Ice Plate Ice |
| 576 | Fig. 4 Plate Ice Maker Fig. 4 Plate Ice Maker Fig. 4 Plate Ice Maker Fig. 4 Plate Ice Maker Ice Builders Ice Builders Scale Formation Scale Formation Thermal Storage Thermal Storage |
| 577 | Ice Storage Ice Storage Ice Rake and Live Bottom Bins Ice Rake and Live Bottom Bins Fig. 5 Ice Rake System Fig. 5 Ice Rake System Fig. 5 Ice Rake System Fig. 5 Ice Rake System |
| 578 | Delivery Systems Delivery Systems Screw and Belt Conveyors Screw and Belt Conveyors Pneumatic Ice Conveying Pneumatic Ice Conveying Slurry Pumping Slurry Pumping |
| 579 | Fig. 6 Typical Flake Ice Pneumatic Conveying System Fig. 6 Typical Flake Ice Pneumatic Conveying System Fig. 6 Typical Flake Ice Pneumatic Conveying System Fig. 6 Typical Flake Ice Pneumatic Conveying System Commercial Ice Commercial Ice |
| 580 | Ice-Source Heat Pumps Ice-Source Heat Pumps Bibliography Bibliography |
| 582 | I-P_R10_Ch44 I-P_R10_Ch44 Applications Applications Refrigeration Requirements Refrigeration Requirements |
| 583 | Heat Loads Heat Loads Table 1 Range of Refrigeration Capacities for Ice Rinks Table 1 Range of Refrigeration Capacities for Ice Rinks |
| 584 | Table 2 Daily Ice Rink Refrigeration Loads, Indoor Rinks Table 2 Daily Ice Rink Refrigeration Loads, Indoor Rinks Table 3 Ice Rink Heat Loads, Outdoor Rinks Table 3 Ice Rink Heat Loads, Outdoor Rinks |
| 585 | Fig. 1 Angle Factor for Radiation between Parallel Rectangles Fci Fig. 1 Angle Factor for Radiation between Parallel Rectangles Fci Fig. 1 Angle Factor for Radiation Between Parallel Rectangles Fci Fig. 1 Angle Factor for Radiation Between Parallel Rectangles Fci Ice Rink Conditions Ice Rink Conditions |
| 586 | Equipment Selection Equipment Selection Compressors Compressors Evaporators Evaporators Condensers and Heat Recovery Condensers and Heat Recovery |
| 587 | Fig. 2 Example of Heat Recovery Piping Fig. 2 Example of Heat Recovery Piping Fig. 2 Example of Heat Recovery Piping Fig. 2 Example of Heat Recovery Piping Ice Temperature Control Ice Temperature Control Rink Piping and Pipe Supports Rink Piping and Pipe Supports Headers and Expansion Tanks Headers and Expansion Tanks |
| 588 | Fig. 3 Reversed Return System of Distribution Fig. 3 Reversed Return System of Distribution Fig. 3 Reverse-Return System of Distribution Fig. 3 Reverse-Return System of Distribution Fig. 4 Two-Pipe Header and Distribution Fig. 4 Two-Pipe Header and Distribution Fig. 4 Two-Pipe Header and Distribution Fig. 4 Two-Pipe Header and Distribution Coolant Equipment Coolant Equipment Ice Removal Ice Removal Storage Accumulators Storage Accumulators Energy Consumption Energy Consumption |
| 589 | Dehumidifiers Dehumidifiers Fig. 5 Ice Rink Floors Fig. 5 Ice Rink Floors Fig. 5 Ice Rink Floors Fig. 5 Ice Rink Floors Rink Floor Design Rink Floor Design |
| 590 | Drainage Drainage Subfloor Heating for Freeze Protection Subfloor Heating for Freeze Protection Preparation of Rink Floor Preparation of Rink Floor Permanent General-Purpose Rink Floor Permanent General-Purpose Rink Floor All-Purpose Floors All-Purpose Floors Header Trench Header Trench |
| 591 | Snow-Melting Pit Snow-Melting Pit Fig. 6 Snow Melt Pit Fig. 6 Snow Melt Pit Fig. 6 Snow Melt Pit Fig. 6 Snow Melt Pit Building, Maintaining, and Planing Ice Surfaces Building, Maintaining, and Planing Ice Surfaces |
| 592 | Pebbling Pebbling Water Quality Water Quality Imitation Ice-Skating Surfaces Imitation Ice-Skating Surfaces References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 594 | I-P_R10_Ch45 I-P_R10_Ch45 Concrete Dams Concrete Dams Methods of Temperature Control Methods of Temperature Control Cement Selection and Pozzolanic Admixtures Cement Selection and Pozzolanic Admixtures Cooling with Embedded Coils Cooling with Embedded Coils Fig. 1 Flow Diagram of Typical Embedded Coil System Fig. 1 Flow Diagram of Typical Embedded Coil System Fig. 1 Flow Diagram of Typical Embedded-Coil System Fig. 1 Flow Diagram of Typical Embedded-Coil System Cooling with Chilled Water and Ice Cooling with Chilled Water and Ice |
| 595 | Cooling by Inundation Cooling by Inundation Table 1 Temperature of Various Size Aggregates Cooled by Inundation Table 1 Temperature of Various Size Aggregates Cooled by Inundation Air-Blast Cooling Air-Blast Cooling Table 2 Bin Compartment Analysis for Determining Refrigeration Loads and Static Pressures Table 2 Bin Compartment Analysis for Determining Refrigeration Loads and Static Pressures |
| 596 | Table 3 Resistance Pressure Table 3 Resistance Pressure Other Cooling Methods Other Cooling Methods System Selection Parameters System Selection Parameters Control of Subsurface Water Flow Control of Subsurface Water Flow |
| 597 | Fig. 2 Typical Freezing Point Fig. 2 Typical Freezing Point Fig. 2 Typical Freezing Point Fig. 2 Typical Freezing Point Soil Stabilization Soil Stabilization Thermal Design Thermal Design Piling Design Piling Design Slab-on-Grade Buildings, Outdoor Slabs, and Equipment Pads Slab-on-Grade Buildings, Outdoor Slabs, and Equipment Pads Design Considerations Design Considerations Passive Cooling Passive Cooling Air Convection Systems Air Convection Systems Liquid Convection Systems Liquid Convection Systems |
| 598 | Two-Phase Systems (Heat Pipes) Two-Phase Systems (Heat Pipes) Fig. 3 Thermo Ring Pile Placement Fig. 3 Thermo Ring Pile Placement Fig. 3 Thermo Ring Pile Placement Fig. 3 Thermo Ring Pile Placement Active Systems Active Systems Fig. 4 Typical Thermo-Probe Installation Fig. 4 Typical Thermo-Probe Installation Fig. 4 Typical Thermo-Probe Installation Fig. 4 Typical Thermo-Probe Installation Fig. 5 Active Ground Stabilization System Fig. 5 Active Ground Stabilization System Fig. 5 Active Ground Stabilization System Fig. 5 Active Ground Stabilization System |
| 599 | References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 600 | I-P_R10_Ch46 I-P_R10_Ch46 Flow Sheets and Specifications Flow Sheets and Specifications Refrigeration: Service or Utility Refrigeration: Service or Utility |
| 601 | Load Characteristics Load Characteristics Production Philosophy Production Philosophy Flexibility Requirements Flexibility Requirements Safety Requirements Safety Requirements Corrosion Corrosion Toxicity Toxicity |
| 602 | Fire and Explosion Fire and Explosion Refrigeration System Malfunction Refrigeration System Malfunction Maintenance Maintenance Equipment Characteristics Equipment Characteristics Automation Automation |
| 603 | Outdoor Construction Outdoor Construction Energy Recovery Energy Recovery Performance Testing Performance Testing Insulation Requirements Insulation Requirements Design Standards and Codes Design Standards and Codes Start-Up and Shutdown Start-Up and Shutdown |
| 604 | Refrigerants Refrigerants Refrigeration Systems Refrigeration Systems |
| 605 | Refrigeration Equipment Refrigeration Equipment Compressors Compressors Absorption Equipment Absorption Equipment Condensers Condensers |
| 606 | Evaporators Evaporators |
| 607 | Instrumentation and Controls Instrumentation and Controls Cooling Towers and Spray Ponds Cooling Towers and Spray Ponds Miscellaneous Equipment Miscellaneous Equipment Bibliography Bibliography |
| 608 | I-P_R10_Ch47 I-P_R10_Ch47 General Applications General Applications Low-Temperature Properties Low-Temperature Properties Fluid Properties Fluid Properties |
| 609 | Table 1 Key Properties of Selected Cryogens Table 1 Key Properties of Selected Cryogens Fig. 1 Phase Diagram for Helium 4 Fig. 1 Phase Diagram for Helium 4 Fig. 1 Phase Diagram for Helium 4 Fig. 1 Phase Diagram for Helium 4 Fig. 2 Specific Heat Capacity for Helium 4 as Function of Temperature for Various Pressures Fig. 2 Specific Heat Capacity for Helium 4 as Function of Temperature for Various Pressures Fig. 2 Specific Heat for Helium 4 as Function of Temperature for Various Pressures Fig. 2 Specific Heat for Helium 4 as Function of Temperature for Various Pressures Fig. 3 Pressure/Volume Diagram for Helium 4 near Its Vapor Dome Fig. 3 Pressure/Volume Diagram for Helium 4 near Its Vapor Dome Fig. 3 Pressure/Volume Diagram for Helium 4 near Its Vapor Dome Fig. 3 Pressure/Volume Diagram for Helium 4 near Its Vapor Dome |
| 610 | Fig. 4 Fraction of Liquid Hydrogen Evaporated due to Ortho- Parahydrogen Conversion as Function of Storage Time Fig. 4 Fraction of Liquid Hydrogen Evaporated due to Ortho- Parahydrogen Conversion as Function of Storage Time Fig. 4 Fraction of Liquid Hydrogen Evaporated due to Ortho-Parahydrogen Conversion as Function of Storage Time Fig. 4 Fraction of Liquid Hydrogen Evaporated due to Ortho-Parahydrogen Conversion as Function of Storage Time Fig. 5 Pressure/Volume Diagram for Helium 4 near Its Vapor Dome Fig. 5 Pressure/Volume Diagram for Helium 4 near Its Vapor Dome Fig. 5 Pressure / Volume Diagram for Hydrogen near Its Vapor Dome Fig. 5 Pressure / Volume Diagram for Hydrogen near Its Vapor Dome Fig. 6 Pressure/Volume Diagram for Nitrogen near Its Vapor Dome Fig. 6 Pressure/Volume Diagram for Nitrogen near Its Vapor Dome Fig. 6 Pressure / Volume Diagram for Nitrogen near Its Vapor Dome Fig. 6 Pressure / Volume Diagram for Nitrogen near Its Vapor Dome Thermal Properties Thermal Properties |
| 611 | Fig. 7 Specific Heat Capacities of Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 7 Specific Heat Capacities of Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 7 Specific Heat of Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 7 Specific Heat of Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 8 Integrated Average Specific Heat Capacity (from for Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 8 Integrated Average Specific Heat Capacity (from for Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 8 Integrated Average Specific Heat (from 540°R) for Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 8 Integrated Average Specific Heat (from 540°R) for Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 9 Thermal Conductivity of Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 9 Thermal Conductivity of Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 9 Thermal Conductivity of Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 9 Thermal Conductivity of Common Cryogenic Materials Table 2 Integrated Average Specific Heat for Cryogenic Materials, in Btu/lbm · °R Table 2 Integrated Average Specific Heat for Cryogenic Materials, in Btu/lbm · °R |
| 612 | Fig. 10 Integrated Average Thermal Conductivity (from 80.3°F) for Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 10 Integrated Average Thermal Conductivity (from 80.3°F) for Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 10 Integrated Average Thermal Conductivity (from 540°R) for Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 10 Integrated Average Thermal Conductivity (from 540°R) for Common Cryogenic Materials Electrical and Magnetic Properties Electrical and Magnetic Properties Fig. 11 Integrated Average Thermal Coefficient of Expansion (from 80.3°F) for Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 11 Integrated Average Thermal Coefficient of Expansion (from 80.3°F) for Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 11 Integrated Average Thermal Coefficient of Expansion (from 540°R) for Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 11 Integrated Average Thermal Coefficient of Expansion (from 540°R) for Common Cryogenic Materials Table 3 Integrated Average Thermal Conductivity for Cryogenic Materials, in Btu/h · ft · °F Table 3 Integrated Average Thermal Conductivity for Cryogenic Materials, in Btu/h · ft · °F Fig. 12 Electrical Resistivity of Some Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 12 Electrical Resistivity of Some Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 12 Electrical Resistivity of Some Common Cryogenic Materials Fig. 12 Electrical Resistivity of Some Common Cryogenic Materials |
| 613 | Mechanical Properties Mechanical Properties Refrigeration and Liquefaction Refrigeration and Liquefaction Isenthalpic Expansion Isenthalpic Expansion |
| 614 | Fig. 13 Schematic and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Simple Joule-Thomson Cycle Refrigerator Fig. 13 Schematic and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Simple Joule-Thomson Cycle Refrigerator Fig. 13 Schematic and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Simple Joule-Thomson Cycle Refrigerator Fig. 13 Schematic and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Simple Joule-Thomson Cycle Refrigerator Fig. 14 Dual Pressure Joule-Thomson Cycle Used as Liquefier Fig. 14 Dual Pressure Joule-Thomson Cycle Used as Liquefier Fig. 14 Dual-Pressure Joule-Thomson Cycle Used as Liquefier Fig. 14 Dual-Pressure Joule-Thomson Cycle Used as Liquefier Isentropic Expansion Isentropic Expansion |
| 615 | Fig. 15 Schematic for Cold Gas Expansion Refrigerator and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Cycle Fig. 15 Schematic for Cold Gas Expansion Refrigerator and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Cycle Fig. 15 Schematic for Cold-Gas Expansion Refrigerator and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Cycle Fig. 15 Schematic for Cold-Gas Expansion Refrigerator and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Cycle Combined Isenthalpic and Isentropic Expansion Combined Isenthalpic and Isentropic Expansion Fig. 16 Schematic for Claude Cycle Refrigerator and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Cycle Fig. 16 Schematic for Claude Cycle Refrigerator and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Cycle Fig. 16 Schematic for Claude-Cycle Refrigerator and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Cycle Fig. 16 Schematic for Claude-Cycle Refrigerator and Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Cycle Mixed-Refrigerant Cycle Mixed-Refrigerant Cycle |
| 616 | Fig. 17 Classical Cascade Compressed Vapor Refrigerator Fig. 17 Classical Cascade Compressed Vapor Refrigerator Fig. 17 Classical Cascade Compressed-Vapor Refrigerator Fig. 17 Classical Cascade Compressed-Vapor Refrigerator Fig. 18 Three-Level and Nine-Level Cascade Cycle Cooling Curves for Natural Gas Fig. 18 Three-Level and Nine-Level Cascade Cycle Cooling Curves for Natural Gas Fig. 18 Three-Level and Nine-Level Cascade-Cycle Cooling Curves for Natural Gas Fig. 18 Three-Level and Nine-Level Cascade-Cycle Cooling Curves for Natural Gas Fig. 19 Mixed Refrigerant Cycle Used for Liquefaction of Natural Gas Fig. 19 Mixed Refrigerant Cycle Used for Liquefaction of Natural Gas Fig. 19 Mixed-Refrigerant Cycle for Natural Gas Liquefaction Fig. 19 Mixed-Refrigerant Cycle for Natural Gas Liquefaction Fig. 20 Propane Precooled Mixed Refrigerant Cycle Cooling Curve for Liquefaction of Natural Gas Fig. 20 Propane Precooled Mixed Refrigerant Cycle Cooling Curve for Liquefaction of Natural Gas Fig. 20 Propane-Precooled Mixed-Refrigerant- Cycle Cooling Curve for Natural Gas Liquefaction Fig. 20 Propane-Precooled Mixed-Refrigerant- Cycle Cooling Curve for Natural Gas Liquefaction |
| 617 | Comparison of Refrigeration and Liquefaction Systems Comparison of Refrigeration and Liquefaction Systems Table 4 Comparison of Several Liquefaction Systems Using Air as Working Fluid Table 4 Comparison of Several Liquefaction Systems Using Air as Working Fluid Table 5 Reversible Power Requirements Table 5 Reversible Power Requirements |
| 618 | Fig. 21 Efficiency as Percent of Carnot Efficiency Fig. 21 Efficiency as Percent of Carnot Efficiency Fig. 21 Efficiency as Percent of Carnot Efficiency Fig. 21 Efficiency as Percent of Carnot Efficiency Cryocoolers Cryocoolers Recuperative Systems Recuperative Systems Fig. 22 Schematic of Joule-Thomson and Brayton Cycles Fig. 22 Schematic of Joule-Thomson and Brayton Cycles Fig. 22 Schematic of Joule-Thomson and Brayton Cycles Fig. 22 Schematic of Joule-Thomson and Brayton Cycles |
| 619 | Fig. 23 Isenthalpic Expansion of Multicomponent Gaseous Mixture Fig. 23 Isenthalpic Expansion of Multicomponent Gaseous Mixture Fig. 23 Isenthalpic Expansion of Multicomponent Gaseous Mixture from A to B Fig. 23 Isenthalpic Expansion of Multicomponent Gaseous Mixture from A to B |
| 620 | Fig. 24 Kleemenko-Cycle Cooler Fig. 24 Kleemenko-Cycle Cooler Fig. 24 Kleemenko Cycle Cooler Fig. 24 Kleemenko Cycle Cooler |
| 621 | Fig. 25 Schematic of Stirling Cryocooler Fig. 25 Schematic of Stirling Cryocooler Fig. 25 Schematic of Stirling Cryocooler Fig. 25 Schematic of Stirling Cryocooler Regenerative Systems Regenerative Systems Fig. 26 Schematic for Orifice Pulse Tube Cryocooler Fig. 26 Schematic for Orifice Pulse Tube Cryocooler Fig. 26 Schematic for Orifice Pulse Tube Cryocooler Fig. 26 Schematic for Orifice Pulse Tube Cryocooler |
| 622 | Fig. 27 Schematic of Double-Inlet Pulse Tube Refrigerator Using Secondary Orifice Fig. 27 Schematic of Double-Inlet Pulse Tube Refrigerator Using Secondary Orifice Fig. 27 Schematic of Double-Inlet Pulse Tube Refrigerator Using Secondary Orifice Fig. 27 Schematic of Double-Inlet Pulse Tube Refrigerator Using Secondary Orifice Fig. 28 Comparison of Carnot Efficiency for Several Recent Pulse Tube Cryocoolers with Similarly Powered Stirling Cryocoolers Fig. 28 Comparison of Carnot Efficiency for Several Recent Pulse Tube Cryocoolers with Similarly Powered Stirling Cryocoolers Fig. 28 Comparison of Carnot Efficiency for Several Recent Pulse Tube Cryocoolers with Similarly Powered Stirling Cryocoolers Fig. 28 Comparison of Carnot Efficiency for Several Recent Pulse Tube Cryocoolers with Similarly Powered Stirling Cryocoolers Fig. 29 Three-Stage Series Orifice Pulse Tube Cryocooler for Liquefying Helium Fig. 29 Three-Stage Series Orifice Pulse Tube Cryocooler for Liquefying Helium Fig. 29 Three-Stage Series Orifice Pulse Tube Cryocooler for Liquefying Helium Fig. 29 Three-Stage Series Orifice Pulse Tube Cryocooler for Liquefying Helium |
| 623 | Fig. 30 Schematic for Single-Stage Gifford-McMahon Refrigerator Fig. 30 Schematic for Single-Stage Gifford-McMahon Refrigerator Fig. 30 Schematic for Single-Stage Gifford-McMahon Refrigerator Fig. 30 Schematic for Single-Stage Gifford-McMahon Refrigerator Fig. 31 Cross Section of Three-Stage Gifford-McMahon Refrigerator Fig. 31 Cross Section of Three-Stage Gifford-McMahon Refrigerator Fig. 31 Cross Section of Three-Stage Gifford-McMahon Refrigerator Fig. 31 Cross Section of Three-Stage Gifford-McMahon Refrigerator Separation and Purification of Gases Separation and Purification of Gases |
| 624 | Air Separation Air Separation Fig. 32 Linde Single-Column Gas Separator Fig. 32 Linde Single-Column Gas Separator Fig. 32 Linde Single-Column Gas Separator Fig. 32 Linde Single-Column Gas Separator Fig. 33 Traditional Linde Double-Column Gas Separator Fig. 33 Traditional Linde Double-Column Gas Separator Fig. 33 Traditional Linde Double-Column Gas Separator Fig. 33 Traditional Linde Double-Column Gas Separator Fig. 34 Argon Recovery Subsystem Fig. 34 Argon Recovery Subsystem Fig. 34 Argon Recovery Subsystem Fig. 34 Argon Recovery Subsystem |
| 625 | Fig. 35 Contemporary Double-Column Gas Separator Fig. 35 Contemporary Double-Column Gas Separator Fig. 35 Contemporary Double-Column Gas Separator Fig. 35 Contemporary Double-Column Gas Separator Helium Recovery Helium Recovery Fig. 36 Schematic of U.S. Bureau of Mines Helium Separation Plant Fig. 36 Schematic of U.S. Bureau of Mines Helium Separation Plant Fig. 36 Schematic of U.S. Bureau of Mines Helium Separation Plant Fig. 36 Schematic of U.S. Bureau of Mines Helium Separation Plant |
| 626 | Natural Gas Processing Natural Gas Processing Purification Procedures Purification Procedures |
| 627 | Equipment Equipment Compression Systems Compression Systems Expansion Devices Expansion Devices |
| 628 | Heat Exchangers Heat Exchangers |
| 629 | Fig. 37 Enlarged View of One Layer of Plate-and-Fin Heat Exchanger Before Assembly Fig. 37 Enlarged View of One Layer of Plate-and-Fin Heat Exchanger Before Assembly Fig. 37 Enlarged View of One Layer of Plate-and-Fin Heat Exchanger Before Assembly Fig. 37 Enlarged View of One Layer of Plate-and-Fin Heat Exchanger Before Assembly Fig. 38 Typical Flow Arrangement for Reversing Heat Exchanger in Air Separation Plant Fig. 38 Typical Flow Arrangement for Reversing Heat Exchanger in Air Separation Plant Fig. 38 Typical Flow Arrangement for Reversing Heat Exchanger in Air Separation Plant Fig. 38 Typical Flow Arrangement for Reversing Heat Exchanger in Air Separation Plant |
| 630 | Fig. 39 Flow Arrangement in Regenerator Operation Fig. 39 Flow Arrangement in Regenerator Operation Fig. 39 Flow Arrangement in Regenerator Operation Fig. 39 Flow Arrangement in Regenerator Operation Fig. 40 Specific Heat of Several Rare Earth Matrix Materials Fig. 40 Specific Heat of Several Rare Earth Matrix Materials Fig. 40 Specific Heat of Several Rare Earth Matrix Materials Fig. 40 Specific Heat of Several Rare Earth Matrix Materials Low-Temperature Insulations Low-Temperature Insulations |
| 631 | Table 6 Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Selected Insulations Table 6 Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Selected Insulations High-Vacuum Insulation High-Vacuum Insulation Table 7 Accommodation Coefficients for Several Gases Table 7 Accommodation Coefficients for Several Gases Evacuated Multilayer Insulations Evacuated Multilayer Insulations |
| 632 | Fig. 41 Effect of Residual Gas Pressure on Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Multilayer Insulation Fig. 41 Effect of Residual Gas Pressure on Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Multilayer Insulation Fig. 41 Effect of Residual Gas Pressure on Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Multilayer Insulation Fig. 41 Effect of Residual Gas Pressure on Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Multilayer Insulation Evacuated Powder and Fibrous Insulations Evacuated Powder and Fibrous Insulations Fig. 42 Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Several Powder Insulations as Function of Residual Gas Pressure Fig. 42 Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Several Powder Insulations as Function of Residual Gas Pressure Fig. 42 Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Several Powder Insulations as Function of Residual Gas Pressure Fig. 42 Apparent Thermal Conductivity of Several Powder Insulations as Function of Residual Gas Pressure Homogeneous Material Insulations Homogeneous Material Insulations |
| 633 | Composite Material Insulations Systems Composite Material Insulations Systems Storage and Transfer Systems Storage and Transfer Systems Storage Systems Storage Systems Fig. 43 Laboratory Storage Dewars for Liquid Oxygen and Nitrogen Fig. 43 Laboratory Storage Dewars for Liquid Oxygen and Nitrogen Fig. 43 Laboratory Storage Dewars for Liquid Oxygen and Nitrogen Fig. 43 Laboratory Storage Dewars for Liquid Oxygen and Nitrogen Table 8 Insulation Selection for Various Cryogenic Storage Vessels Table 8 Insulation Selection for Various Cryogenic Storage Vessels |
| 634 | Transfer Systems Transfer Systems Instrumentation Instrumentation Pressure Measurements Pressure Measurements Thermometry Thermometry Liquid-Level Measurements Liquid-Level Measurements Density Measurements Density Measurements |
| 635 | Flow Measurements Flow Measurements Hazards of Cryogenic Systems Hazards of Cryogenic Systems Physiological Hazards Physiological Hazards Construction and Operations Hazards Construction and Operations Hazards Fig. 44 Coefficient of Linear Expansion for Several Metals as Function of Temperature Fig. 44 Coefficient of Linear Expansion for Several Metals as Function of Temperature Fig. 44 Coefficient of Linear Expansion for Several Metals as Function of Temperature Fig. 44 Coefficient of Linear Expansion for Several Metals as Function of Temperature |
| 636 | Fig. 45 Pressure Developed During Warming of Liquid Nitrogen in Closed Container Fig. 45 Pressure Developed During Warming of Liquid Nitrogen in Closed Container Fig. 45 Pressure Developed During Warming of Liquid Nitrogen in Closed Container Fig. 45 Pressure Developed During Warming of Liquid Nitrogen in Closed Container Flammability and Detonability Hazards Flammability and Detonability Hazards |
| 637 | Table 9 Flammability and Detonability Limits of Hydrogen and Methane Gas Table 9 Flammability and Detonability Limits of Hydrogen and Methane Gas Fig. 46 Flammable Limits for O2-N2-CH4 System Fig. 46 Flammable Limits for O2-N2-CH4 System Fig. 46 Flammable Limits for O2/N2/CH4 System Fig. 46 Flammable Limits for O2/N2/CH4 System Hazard Evaluation Summary Hazard Evaluation Summary References References |
| 638 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 640 | I-P_R10_Ch48 I-P_R10_Ch48 Autocascade Systems Autocascade Systems Operational Characteristics Operational Characteristics Fig. 1 Simple Autocascade Refrigeration System Fig. 1 Simple Autocascade Refrigeration System Fig. 1 Simple Autocascade Refrigeration System Fig. 1 Simple Autocascade Refrigeration System |
| 641 | Fig. 2 Four-Stage Autocascade System Fig. 2 Four-Stage Autocascade System Fig. 2 Four-Stage Autocascade System Fig. 2 Four-Stage Autocascade System Design Considerations Design Considerations Custom-Designed and Field- Erected Systems Custom-Designed and Field- Erected Systems Single-Refrigerant Systems Single-Refrigerant Systems Two-Stage Systems Two-Stage Systems Refrigerant and Compressor Selection Refrigerant and Compressor Selection |
| 642 | Table 1 Low-Temperature Characteristics of Several Refrigerants at Three Evaporating Temperatures Table 1 Low-Temperature Characteristics of Several Refrigerants at Three Evaporating Temperatures Special Multistage Systems Special Multistage Systems Cascade Systems Cascade Systems Fig. 3 Simple Cascade System Fig. 3 Simple Cascade System Fig. 3 Simple Cascade System Fig. 3 Simple Cascade System Fig. 4 Simple Cascade Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram Fig. 4 Simple Cascade Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram Fig. 4 Simple Cascade Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram Fig. 4 Simple Cascade Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram |
| 643 | Fig. 5 Two-Stage Cascade System Fig. 5 Two-Stage Cascade System Fig. 5 Two-Stage Cascade System Fig. 5 Two-Stage Cascade System Fig. 6 Three-Stage Cascade System Fig. 6 Three-Stage Cascade System Fig. 6 Three-Stage Cascade System Fig. 6 Three-Stage Cascade System |
| 644 | Refrigerants for Low-Temperature Circuit Refrigerants for Low-Temperature Circuit Compressor Lubrication Compressor Lubrication Table 2 Properties of R-508b Table 2 Properties of R-508b Table 3 Theoretical Performance of Cascade System Using R-13, R-503, R-23, or R-508b Table 3 Theoretical Performance of Cascade System Using R-13, R-503, R-23, or R-508b Table 4 Theoretical Compressor Performance Data for Two Different Evaporating Temperatures Table 4 Theoretical Compressor Performance Data for Two Different Evaporating Temperatures Compressors Compressors |
| 645 | Choice of Metal for Piping and Vessels Choice of Metal for Piping and Vessels Low-Temperature Materials Low-Temperature Materials Fig. 7 Tensile Strength Versus Temperature of Several Metals Fig. 7 Tensile Strength Versus Temperature of Several Metals Fig. 7 Tensile Strength Versus Temperature of Several Metals Fig. 7 Tensile Strength Versus Temperature of Several Metals Fig. 8 Tensile Elongation Versus Temperature of Several Metals Fig. 8 Tensile Elongation Versus Temperature of Several Metals Fig. 8 Tensile Elongation Versus Temperature of Several Metals Fig. 8 Tensile Elongation Versus Temperature of Several Metals Metals Metals |
| 646 | Table 5 Several Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloys at –321°F Table 5 Several Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloys at –321°F Thermoplastic Polymers Thermoplastic Polymers |
| 647 | Fig. 9 Shear Modulus Versus Normalized Temperature (T/ Tg) for Thermoplastic Polymers Fig. 9 Shear Modulus Versus Normalized Temperature (T/ Tg) for Thermoplastic Polymers Fig. 9 Shear Modulus Versus Normalized Temperature (T/Tg) for Thermoplastic Polymers Fig. 9 Shear Modulus Versus Normalized Temperature (T/Tg) for Thermoplastic Polymers Table 6 Approximate Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures for Common Polymers Table 6 Approximate Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures for Common Polymers Thermosetting Plastics Thermosetting Plastics Fig. 10 Tensile Strength Versus Temperature of Plastics and Polymer Matrix Laminates Fig. 10 Tensile Strength Versus Temperature of Plastics and Polymer Matrix Laminates Fig. 10 Tensile Strength Versus Temperature of Plastics and Polymer Matrix Laminates Fig. 10 Tensile Strength Versus Temperature of Plastics and Polymer Matrix Laminates Fiber Composites Fiber Composites |
| 648 | Table 7 Tensile Properties of Unidirectional Fiber-Reinforced Composites Table 7 Tensile Properties of Unidirectional Fiber-Reinforced Composites Adhesives Adhesives Insulation Insulation Table 8 Components of a Low-Temperature Refrigerated Pipe Insulation System Table 8 Components of a Low-Temperature Refrigerated Pipe Insulation System Heat Transfer Heat Transfer |
| 649 | Secondary Coolants Secondary Coolants Table 9 Overview of Some Secondary Coolants Table 9 Overview of Some Secondary Coolants |
| 650 | Table 10 Refrigerant Properties of Some Low-Temperature Secondary Coolants Table 10 Refrigerant Properties of Some Low-Temperature Secondary Coolants References References Bibliography Bibliography |
| 652 | I-P_R10_Ch49 I-P_R10_Ch49 Preservation Applications Preservation Applications Principles of Biological Preservation Principles of Biological Preservation |
| 653 | Fig. 1 Schematic of Response of Single Cell During Freezing as Function of Cooling Rate Fig. 1 Schematic of Response of Single Cell During Freezing as Function of Cooling Rate Fig. 1 Schematic of Response of Single Cell During Freezing as Function of Cooling Rate Fig. 1 Schematic of Response of Single Cell During Freezing as Function of Cooling Rate Fig. 2 Generic Survival Signature Indicating Independent Injury Mechanisms Associated with Extremes of Slow and Rapid Cooling Rates During Cell Freezing Fig. 2 Generic Survival Signature Indicating Independent Injury Mechanisms Associated with Extremes of Slow and Rapid Cooling Rates During Cell Freezing Fig. 2 Generic Survival Signature Indicating Independent Injury Mechanisms Associated with Extremes of Slow and Rapid Cooling Rates During Cell Freezing Fig. 2 Generic Survival Signature Indicating Independent Injury Mechanisms Associated with Extremes of Slow and Rapid Cooling Rates During Cell Freezing Table 1 Summary of Cryoprotective Agents (CPAs) Table 1 Summary of Cryoprotective Agents (CPAs) |
| 654 | Table 2 Spectrum of Various Types of Living Cells and Tissues Commonly Stored by Freezing (as of 1993) Table 2 Spectrum of Various Types of Living Cells and Tissues Commonly Stored by Freezing (as of 1993) Preservation of Biological Materials by Freezing Preservation of Biological Materials by Freezing |
| 655 | Preservation of Biological Materials by Freeze Drying Preservation of Biological Materials by Freeze Drying Fig. 3 Key Steps in Freeze-Drying Process Fig. 3 Key Steps in Freeze-Drying Process Fig. 3 Key Steps in Freeze-Drying Process Fig. 3 Key Steps in Freeze-Drying Process Fig. 4 Phase Diagrams of Aqueous Solutions Fig. 4 Phase Diagrams of Aqueous Solutions Fig. 4 Phase Diagrams of Aqueous Solutions Fig. 4 Phase Diagrams of Aqueous Solutions |
| 656 | Preservation of Biological Materials by Vitrification Preservation of Biological Materials by Vitrification Preservation of Biological Materials by Undercooling Preservation of Biological Materials by Undercooling |
| 657 | Research Applications Research Applications Electron Microscopy Specimen Preparation Electron Microscopy Specimen Preparation Cryomicroscopy Cryomicroscopy |
| 658 | Cryomicrotome Cryomicrotome Clinical Applications Clinical Applications Hypothermia Hypothermia Cryosurgery Cryosurgery |
| 659 | Table 3 Adjuvants for Cryosurgical Application Table 3 Adjuvants for Cryosurgical Application Refrigeration Hardware for Cryobiological Applications Refrigeration Hardware for Cryobiological Applications Fig. 5 Generic Thermal History for Example Cryopreservation Procedure Fig. 5 Generic Thermal History for Example Cryopreservation Procedure Fig. 5 Generic Thermal History for Example Cryopreservation Procedure Fig. 5 Generic Thermal History for Example Cryopreservation Procedure |
| 660 | References References |
| 662 | Bibliography Bibliography |
| 664 | I-P_R10_Ch50 I-P_R10_Ch50 |
| 673 | Sources Sources |
| 674 | Selected Codes and Standards Published by Various Societies and Associations (Continued) Selected Codes and Standards Published by Various Societies and Associations (Continued) |
| 700 | ORGANIZATIONS ORGANIZATIONS |
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