IEEE 81-2012
$73.67
IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance, and Earth Surface Potentials of a Grounding System
| Published By | Publication Date | Number of Pages |
| IEEE | 2012 |
Revision Standard – Active. Practical test methods and techniques are presented for measuring the electrical characteristics of grounding systems. Topics addressed include safety considerations, measuring earth resistivity, measuring the power system frequency resistance or impedance of the ground system to remote earth, measuring the transient or surge impedance of the ground system to remote earth, measuring step and touch voltages, verifying the integrity of the grounding system, reviewing common methods for performing ground testing, reviewing instrumentation characteristics and limitations, and reviewing various factors that can distort test measurements.
PDF Catalog
| PDF Pages | PDF Title |
|---|---|
| 1 | IEEE Std 81-2012 Front Cover |
| 3 | Title Page |
| 6 | Notice to users Laws and regulations Copyrights Updating of IEEE documents Errata |
| 7 | Patents |
| 8 | Participants |
| 10 | Introduction |
| 11 | Contents |
| 13 | Important Notice 1. Overview 1.1 Scope |
| 14 | 1.2 Purpose 2. Normative references 3. Definitions |
| 16 | 4. Test objectives 4.1 Earth resistivity measurements 4.2 Impedance and potential gradient measurements 5. Safety precautions while making ground tests 5.1 Ground electrode tests |
| 17 | 5.2 Surge arrester ground continuity tests 5.3 Neutral and shield wire ground tests 5.4 Equipment neutral ground test 6. General considerations on the problems related to measurement 6.1 Complexities |
| 18 | 6.2 Test electrodes |
| 19 | 6.3 Stray direct currents 6.4 Stray alternating currents 6.5 Reactive component of impedance of a large grounding system |
| 20 | 6.6 Coupling between test leads 6.7 Buried metallic objects 7. Earth resistivity 7.1 General |
| 23 | 7.2 Methods of measuring earth resistivity 7.2.1 Geological information and soil samples |
| 24 | 7.2.2 Variation of depth method or three-point method 7.2.3 Four-point method |
| 26 | 7.3 Interpretation of measurements 7.3.1 Geological information and soil samples |
| 27 | 7.3.2 Variation of depth method (see Annex B) |
| 29 | 7.3.3 Four-point method |
| 30 | 7.4 Guidance on performing field measurements 7.4.1 Interferences |
| 31 | 7.4.2 Probe spacing influence on test accuracy 8. Ground impedance 8.1 General |
| 32 | 8.1.1 Characteristics |
| 33 | 8.1.2 Theoretical value of ground resistance 8.2 Methods of measuring ground impedance 8.2.1 General 8.2.2 Methods |
| 42 | 9. Testing earth potentials and step and touch voltages 9.1 Purpose |
| 43 | 9.2 Types of step and touch voltages |
| 44 | 9.3 Measurement procedure (general) 9.4 Methods of measuring step, touch, and transfer voltages 9.4.1 Staged fault test |
| 45 | 9.4.2 Current injection or low-voltage fault test (Patel [B52]) |
| 46 | 9.4.3 Measurement with conventional ground meter |
| 47 | 9.4.4 Measurement of touch and step voltages using a computer-based grounding multimeter |
| 48 | 9.5 Measurement issues |
| 49 | 10. Integrity of grounding systems 10.1 General 10.2 High-current test method |
| 51 | 10.3 Measurement of resistance between two risers 10.4 Low-impedance continuity measurement by computer-based grounding multimeter |
| 52 | 11. Current splits 11.1 Introduction |
| 53 | 11.2 Test considerations 12. Transient impedance of grounding system 12.1 General |
| 54 | 12.2 Measurement using mobile impulse generator (Georgia Institute of Technology [B29]) |
| 57 | 12.3 Measurement using a broadband meter (Georgia Institute of Technology [B29]) |
| 58 | 12.4 Instrumentation |
| 60 | Annex A (informative) Nonuniform soils A.1 Two-layer soil apparent resistivity A.2 Ground rod resistance in a two-layer soil |
| 62 | Annex B (informative) Determination of an earth model |
| 65 | Annex C (informative) Theory of the fall-of-potential method C.1 Basic definitions and symbols C.2 Derivation of the fundamental equations |
| 66 | C.3 Uniform soil C.4 Identical electrodes and large spacings |
| 67 | C.5 Hemispherical electrodes C.6 General case |
| 68 | Annex D (informative) Surface material resistivity D.1 Introduction |
| 69 | D.2 Soil methods applied to the measurement of rock resistivity D.2.1 Two-point method D.2.2 Three-point method D.2.3 Four-point method |
| 70 | D.3 ASTM method applied to the measurement of rock resistivity D.4 Rock resistivity measurement published literature |
| 71 | D.4.1 Carmen and Woodhouse method |
| 72 | D.4.2 Laird method |
| 73 | D.4.3 Rectangular volume method |
| 77 | Annex E (informative) Instrumentation E.1 Earth test meter |
| 78 | E.2 Clamp-on ground tester |
| 82 | E.3 Computer-based ground meter—modified fall-of-potential method |
| 83 | Annex F (informative) Bibliography |
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